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Archibald MacLeish

 
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia:

Archibald MacLeish

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(born May 7, 1892, Glencoe, Ill., U.S. — died April 20, 1982, Boston, Mass.) U.S. poet, playwright, teacher, and public official. He practiced law before leaving for France in 1923 to perfect his poetic craft. His early poems "Ars Poetica" (1926) and "You, Andrew Marvell" (1930) are often anthologized. He later expressed his concern for democratic ideals in "public" verse such as Conquistador (1932, Pulitzer Prize) and Public Speech (1936). Other works include Collected Poems (1952, Pulitzer Prize) and the verse drama J.B. (1958, Pulitzer Prize). He served as librarian of Congress (1939 – 44) and assistant secretary of state (1944 – 45) and later taught at Harvard (1949 – 62).

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Gale Encyclopedia of Biography:

Archibald MacLeish

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Archibald MacLeish (1892-1982) was an American poet, playwright, teacher, and public official and a Pulitzer Prize winner.

Archibald MacLeish was born in Glencoe, Ill. on May 7, 1892. He graduated from Yale University in 1915. After serving in World War I as a field artillery officer, he received a degree from the Harvard Law School in 1919 and practiced law in Boston for 3 years. In 1923 he departed for Europe to travel and write. He lived mainly in France for the next 5 years, publishing several books of poetry during this period, including The Pot of Earth (1925), which echoed T. S. Eliot's The Waste Land, and The Hamlet of A. MacLeish, an expression of MacLeish's disillusionment with the postwar scene.

During the 1930s MacLeish was a reporter on the staff of Fortune magazine. A strong supporter of the New Deal, he served as adviser to President Franklin D. Roosevelt while working as librarian of Congress (1939-1944). A vigorous defender of democracy in many articles and speeches, he revealed a growing awareness of the dangers of both fascism and communism. From 1944 to 1945 MacLeish was assistant secretary of state. In 1949 Harvard offered him the Boylston professorship in rhetoric and oratory; he continued to teach at that university until his retirement in 1962.

MacLeish served as a sort of poetic weather vane; for more than 40 years his work reflected the thought and feeling, the poetic environment, of its time. Responding more to the outside world than to any abiding philosophic or esthetic commitment within himself, he expressed, from his earliest published verse to The Wild Old Wicked Man and Other Poems (1968), the cultivated man's changing sense of a rapidly changing world. The conclusion of his poem Ars Poetica (1926) has become the universal motto of New Critical poetic theory: "A poem should not mean/But be." "You, Andrew Marvell" (1930) expressed for the entire generation of modernist poets who came of age with Eliot their debt to 17th-century metaphysical verse.

MacLeish's lengthy poem Conquistador (1932) was, in effect, a summation of the poetic fashions of the 1920s, in style and plan derived from Ezra Pound, in attitudes indebted to Eliot. It won a Pulitzer Prize. Frescoes for Mr. Rockefeller's City (1933) might have served as campaign poetry for the New Deal. His Pulitzer Prize-winning verse drama, J. B., reflected the 1950s concern with existential absurdity in its retelling of the biblical story of Job.

MacLeish's most important critical work, Poetry and Experience (1961), treats esthetic theory and practice. The body of his poetry is included in The Collected Poetry of Archibald MacLeish (1963). His criticism and commentary are in Poetry and Journalism (1958) and The Dialogues of Archibald MacLeish and Mark Van Doren (1964). He died in Boston on Apr. 20, 1982.

Further Reading

Useful for information on MacLeish are Signi Lenea Falk, Archibald MacLeish (1966), and the section on MacLeish in Hyatt H. Waggoner, American Poets: From the Puritans to the Present (1968).

Columbia Encyclopedia:

Archibald MacLeish

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MacLeish, Archibald (məklēsh'), 1892-1982, American poet and public official, b. Glencoe, Ill., grad. Yale, 1915, LL.B Harvard, 1919. He practiced law for only three years and during the 1920s lived mostly in France. There he produced several volumes of verse, including The Pot of Earth (1925) and The Hamlet of A. MacLeish (1928). Conquistador (1932; Pulitzer Prize) is a narrative poem about the conquest of Mexico. MacLeish returned to the United States in the 1930s; the volume of poetry Frescoes for Mr. Rockefeller's City (1933) and the verse play for radio The Fall of the City (1937) reveal his deepening concern with the rise of Fascism in the world. He was librarian of Congress (1939-44) and undersecretary of State (1944-45). From 1949 to 1962 he was Boylston professor of rhetoric at Harvard. Among his later works are the verse drama J. B. (1958; Pulitzer Prize), a retelling of the story of Job in a modern setting; volumes of poetry including Collected Poems 1917-1952 (1952; Pulitzer Prize), The Wild Wicked Old Man (1968), The Human Season (1972), and Collected Poems, 1917-1982 (1985); a volume of prose, Riders on the Earth (1978), and a play, Scratch (1971), based on Stephen Vincent Benét's short story "The Devil and Daniel Webster."

Bibliography

See his letters, ed. R. H. Winnick (1983); B. A. Drabeck and H. E. Ellis, ed., Archibald MacLeish (1986).

Houghton Mifflin Chronology of US Literature:

Works by Archibald MacLeish

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(1892-1982)

1917Tower of Ivory. MacLeish's first collection, assembled while the poet was serving in the army, registers the disillusioning impact of World War I. The New York Times reviewer calls the poems better "than the average run of minor verse." Technically accomplished but conventional, the best is "Our Lady of Troy," a blank-verse play in which Faustus evokes Helen of Troy.
1924The Happy Marriage and Other Poems. After two earlier collections--the sonnet cycle Songs for a Summer's Day (1915) and Tower of Ivory (1917) reflecting his war experiences--MacLeish issues his first mature work in the title poem, a complex meditation that shows the poet working through influences to articulate a personal vision and authority.
1925The Pot of Earth. The first of the poet's major modernist works during the decade shows the influence of T. S. Eliot's The Waste Land in the story of a woman's sexual awakening, marriage, pregnancy, and death in the context of a mythical fertility cycle.
1926Streets of the Earth. The volume includes the important long poem "Einstein," a meditation on the physicist's struggle to comprehend the universe, as well as some of MacLeish's enduring short poems, such as "Memorial Rain," "The Silently Slain," and "The Farm."
1928The Hamlet of A. MacLeish. The poet's most elaborate and complex work is a challenging reinterpretation of Hamlet as a reflection of the modern world and the poet's own uncertainties.
1930New Found Land. Reflecting the poet's return to the United States to live, this collection shifts from international to American themes. The volume includes two of his most admired works, "You, Andrew Marvell" and "Immortal Autumn."
1932Conquistador. MacLeish's epic poem about the conquest of Mexico by Hernán Cortés is hailed as the poet's masterpiece; it wins the Pulitzer Prize in 1933.
1933Frescoes for Mr. Rockefeller's City. Intended as a "replacement" for the removed murals by Diego Rivera commissioned for New York's Rockefeller Center, MacLeish's sequence celebrates the American land and labor despite the excesses of both capitalists and radicals. MacLeish's "public speech" style and declamatory stance are also evident in his other 1933 collection, Poems, 1924-1933, particularly in "Elpenor," MacLeish's partisan version of the modern underworld.
1935Panic. In two special Broadway performances, Orson Welles stars in MacLeish's verse drama as a banker who is certain that he knows how to solve the problems of the Depression and is done in by selfishness. The play announces the author's shift of attention to pressing social issues.
1936Public Speech. As its title indicates, the volume announces the poet's intention to use his verse to address important social and political issues, a stance that would dominate MacLeish's work thereafter.
1937The Fall of the City. MacLeish's attack on totalitarianism takes the form of the first American play in verse written for the radio. It is performed on April 11 by Orson Welles and Burgess Meredith.
1938Air Raid. Described as a "verse play for the radio," the poem dramatizes the bombing of a city in a series of vignettes.
1939America Was Promises. A poetic call to action to save democracy. Fellow poet Louise Bogan complains that the work shows an essentially private poet being misled by assuming a public, prophetic role.
1940The Irresponsibles. MacLeish's attack on American academics and authors for not taking a firmer stand on the side of democracy causes critics such as Edmund Wilson and Morton D. Zabel to accuse the writer of succumbing to the role of propagandist.
1941The American Cause and A Time to Speak. These collections of speeches include many on the meaning of democracy and the artist's responsibility in its defense. Another collection, A Time to Act, would appear in 1943.
1948Active and Other Poems. The title work is a dramatic poem in which MacLeish imagines a totally destructive war and laments the collapse of humanity and heroism.
1950Poetry and Opinions. MacLeish comes to the defense of Ezra Pound over the controversy surrounding the latter being awarded the Bollingen Prize for The Pisan Cantos in 1949. MacLeish argues that a poem's "bad opinions" do not necessarily make a poem bad.
1952Collected Poems, 1917-1952. MacLeish wins his second Pulitzer Prize for this compilation spanning more than thirty-five years. It prompts a reevaluation and renewed critical acclaim. According to poet Richard Eberhart, "There is something basically lithe, wiry, direct and clear-seeing about his talent. We feel him as distinctly American."
1958J.B. MacLeish's verse drama recounts the trials of the biblical Job in a modern setting and becomes a surprise Broadway hit, playing for 364 performances and earning both a Pulitzer Prize and a Tony Award.
1971Scratch. Disappointed by the social unrest of the period, MacLeish responds with his only prose play, inspired by Stephen Vincent Benét's "The Devil and Daniel Webster," arguing for personal liberty and social order. Closing after only four performances, it is called by one reviewer "too arbitrary for a drama, too ambiguous for a history, and too shallow for a biography." MacLeish would follow it with his final dramatic effort, The Great American Fourth of July Parade (1975), dramatizing the philosophical battle between John Adams and Thomas Jefferson.
1983Letters of Archibald MacLeish, 1907-1982. Much of the politics and literature of the modern period is reflected in these wide-ranging letters. MacLeish's correspondents include Ernest Hemingway, Ezra Pound, Dean Acheson, and John Peale Bishop.

Quotes By:

Archibald Macleish

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Quotes:

"Democracy is never a thing done. Democracy is always something that a nation must be doing. What is necessary now is one thing and one thing only that democracy become again democracy in action, not democracy accomplished and piled up in goods and gold."

"It is not in the world of ideas that life is lived. Life is lived for better or worse in life, and to a man in life, his life can be no more absurd than it can be the opposite of absurd, whatever that opposite may be."

"The dissenter is every human being at those moments of his life when he resigns momentarily from the herd and thinks for himself."

"There are those, I know, who will reply that the liberation of humanity, the freedom of man and mind, is nothing but a dream. They are right. It is. It is the American Dream."

"Conventional wisdom notwithstanding, there is no reason either in football or in poetry why the two should not meet in a man's life if he has the weight and cares about the words."

"What is freedom? Freedom is the right to choose: the right to create for oneself the alternatives of choice."

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Wikipedia on Answers.com:

Archibald MacLeish

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 This article's lead section may not adequately summarize its contents. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of the article's key points. (January 2012)
Archibald MacLeish
Born May 7, 1892(1892-05-07)
Glencoe, Illinois
Died April 20, 1982(1982-04-20) (aged 89)[1]
Boston, Massachusetts
Nationality American
Other names Archie, Archie MacLeish
Occupation Poet, playwright, essayist, Librarian of Congress, lawyer
Known for Poetry, drama, essays, librarianship

Archibald MacLeish (May 7, 1892 – April 20, 1982) was an American poet, writer, and the Librarian of Congress. He is associated with the Modernist school of poetry. He received three Pulitzer Prizes for his work.

Contents

Early years

MacLeish was born in Glencoe, Illinois. His father, Scottish-born Andrew MacLeish, worked as a dry goods merchant. His mother, Martha (née Hillard), was a college professor and had served as president of Rockford College. He grew up on an estate bordering Lake Michigan. He attended the Hotchkiss School from 1907 to 1911 before entering Yale University, where he majored in English, was elected to Phi Beta Kappa, and was selected for the Skull and Bones society. He then enrolled in Harvard Law School, where he served as an editor of the Harvard Law Review.[2] In 1916, he married Ada Hitchcock.[3] His studies were interrupted by World War I, in which he served first as an ambulance driver and later as a captain of artillery. He graduated from law school in 1919, taught law for a semester for the government department at Harvard, then worked briefly as an editor for The New Republic. He next spent three years practicing law.

Expatriatism

In 1923 MacLeish left his law firm and moved with his wife to Paris, France, where they joined the community of literary expatriates that included such members as Gertrude Stein and Ernest Hemingway. They also became part of the famed coterie of Riviera hosts Gerald and Sarah Murphy, which included Hemingway, Zelda and F. Scott Fitzgerald, John Dos Passos Fernand Léger, Jean Cocteau, Pablo Picasso, John O'Hara, Cole Porter, Dorothy Parker and Robert Benchley. He returned to America in 1928. From 1930 to 1938 he worked as a writer and editor for Fortune Magazine, during which he also became increasingly politically active, especially with anti-fascist causes.

While in Paris, Harry Crosby, publisher of the Black Sun Press, offered to published MacLeish's poetry. Both MacLeish and Crosby had overturned the normal expectations of society, rejecting conventional careers in the legal and banking fields. Harry publish MacLeish's long poem Einstein in a deluxe edition of a 150 copies that were quickly sold. MacLeish was paid US$200 for his work.[4]:183

Librarian of Congress

American Libraries has called MacLeish "one of the hundred most influential figures in librarianship during the 20th century" in the United States.[5] MacLeish’s career in libraries and public service began, not with a burning desire from within, but from a combination of the urging of a close friend Felix Frankfurter, and as MacLeish put it, “The President decided I wanted to be Librarian of Congress.” [6] Franklin Roosevelt’s nomination of MacLeish was a controversial and highly political maneuver fraught with several challenges. First, the current Librarian of Congress, Herbert Putnam, who had served at the post for 40 years, needed to be persuaded to retire from the position. In order to be persuaded, Putnam was made Librarian Emeritus. Secondly, Franklin D. Roosevelt desired someone with similar political sensibilities to fill the post and to help convince the American public that the New Deal was working and that he had the right to run for an unprecedented third term in office. MacLeish’s occupation as a poet and his history as an expatriate in Paris rankled many Republicans. Lastly, MacLeish’s lack of a degree in library sciences or any training whatsoever aggravated the librarian community, especially the American Library Association which was campaigning for one of its members to be nominated. Despite these challenges, President Roosevelt and Justice Frankfurter felt that the mixture of MacLeish’s love for literature and his abilities to organize and motivate people, exemplified by his days in law school, would be just what the Library of Congress needed.

MacLeish sought support from expected places such as the president of Harvard, MacLeish’s current place of work, but found none. It was support from unexpected places, such as M. Llewellyn Raney of the University of Chicago libraries, which alleviated the ALA letter writing campaign against MacLeish’s nomination. Raney pointed out to the detractors that, “MacLeish was a lawyer like Putnam…he was equally at home in the arts as one of the four leading American poets now alive…and while it was true that he had not attended a professional school of library science, neither had thirty-four of thirty-seven persons presently occupying executive positions at the Library of Congress.”[7]:297 The main Republican arguments against MacLeish’s nomination from within Congress was: that he was a poet and was a “fellow traveler” or sympathetic to communist causes. Calling to mind differences with the party he had over the years, MacLeish avowed that, “no one would be more shocked to learn I am a Communist than the Communists themselves.”[7]:296 In Congress MacLeish’s main advocate was Senate Majority Leader Alben Barkley, Democrat from Kentucky. With President Roosevelt’s support and Senator Barkley’s skillful defense in the United States Senate, victory in a roll call vote with sixty-three Senators voting in favor of MacLeish’s appointment was achieved.[7]:298

MacLeish became privy to Roosevelt’s views on the library during a private meeting with the president. According to Roosevelt, the pay levels were too low and many people would need to be removed. Soon afterward, MacLeish joined Putnam for a luncheon in New York. At the meeting, Putnam relayed his desire to come to the Library for work and that his office would be down the hall from MacLeish’s. This meeting further crystallized for MacLeish that as Librarian of Congress, he would be “an unpopular newcomer, disturbing the status quo.”[7]:302

Library of Congress reading room

It was a question from MacLeish’s daughter, Mimi, which led him to realize that, “Nothing is more difficult for the beginning librarian than to discover what profession he was engaged.” [7]:309 Mimi, his daughter, had inquired about what her daddy was to do all day, “…hand out books?”[7]:309 MacLeish created his own job description and set out to learn about how the library was currently organized. In October 1944, MacLeish described that he did not set out to reorganize the library, rather “…one problem or another demanded action, and each problem solved led on to another that needed attention.”[7]:318

MacLeish’s chief accomplishments had their start in instituting daily staff meetings with division chiefs, the chief assistant librarian, and other administrators. He then set about setting up various committees on various projects including: acquisitions policy, fiscal operations, cataloging, and outreach. The committees alerted MacLeish to various problems throughout the library.[7]:319

First and foremost, under Putnam, the library was acquiring more books than it could catalog. A report in December 1939, found that over one-quarter of the library’s collection had not yet been cataloged. MacLeish solved the problem of acquisitions and cataloging through establishing another committee instructed to seek advice from specialists outside of the Library of Congress. The committee found many subject areas of the library to be adequate and many other areas to be, surprisingly, inadequately provided for. A set of general principles on acquisitions was then developed to ensure that, though it was impossible to collect everything, the Library of Congress would acquire the bare minimum of canons to meet its mission. These principles included acquiring all materials necessary to members of Congress and government officers, all materials expressing and recording the life and achievements of the people of the United States, and materials of other societies past and present which are of the most immediate concern to the peoples of the United States.[7]:320

Secondly, MacLeish set about reorganizing the operational structure. Leading scholars in library science were assigned a committee to analyze the library’s managerial structure. The committee issued a report a mere two months after it was formed, in April 1940 stating that a major restructuring was necessary. This was no surprise to MacLeish who had thirty-five divisions under him. He divided the library’s functions into three departments: administration, processing, and reference. All existing divisions were then assigned as appropriate.[7]:321 By including library scientists from inside and outside the Library of Congress, MacLeish was able to gain faith from the library community that he was on the right track. Within a year MacLeish had completely restructured the Library of Congress making it work more efficiently, bringing the library to the center to “report on the mystery of things.”[8]

Last, but not least, MacLeish promoted the Library of Congress through various forms of public advocacy. Perhaps his greatest display of public advocacy was requesting a budget increase of over a million dollars in his March 1940 budget proposal to the United States Congress. While the library did not receive the full increase, it did receive an increase of $367, 591, the largest one-year increase to date.[7]:322 Much of the increase went toward improved pay levels, increased acquisitions in under served subject areas, and new positions.

World War II

During World War II MacLeish also served as director of the War Department's Office of Facts and Figures and as the assistant director of the Office of War Information. These jobs were heavily involved with propaganda, which was well-suited to MacLeish's talents; he had written quite a bit of politically motivated work in the previous decade. He spent a year as the Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs and a further year representing the U.S. at the creation of UNESCO. After this, he retired from public service and returned to academia.

Return to writing

Despite a long history of criticizing Marxism, MacLeish came under fire from conservative politicians of the 1940s and 1950s, including J. Edgar Hoover and Joseph McCarthy. Much of this was due to his involvement with left-wing organizations like the League of American Writers, and to his friendships with prominent left-wing writers. In 1949 MacLeish became the Boylston Professor of Rhetoric and Oratory at Harvard. He held this position until his retirement in 1962. In 1959 his play J.B. won the Pulitzer Prize for Drama. From 1963 to 1967 he was the John Woodruff Simpson Lecturer at Amherst College. Around 1969/70 he met Bob Dylan, who describes this encounter in the third chapter of Chronicles, Vol. 1.

MacLeish greatly admired T. S. Eliot and Ezra Pound, and his work shows quite a bit of their influence. He was the literary figure that played the most important role in freeing Ezra Pound from St. Elisabeths Hospital in Washington DC where he was incarcerated for high treason between 1946 and 1958. MacLeish's early work was very traditionally modernist and accepted the contemporary modernist position holding that a poet was isolated from society. His most well-known poem, "Ars Poetica," contains a classic statement of the modernist aesthetic: "A poem should not mean / But be." He later broke with modernism's pure aesthetic. MacLeish himself was greatly involved in public life and came to believe that this was not only an appropriate but an inevitable role for a poet.

Legacy

MacLeish worked to promote the arts, culture, and libraries. Among other impacts, MacLeish was the first Librarian of Congress to begin the process of naming what would become the United States Poet Laureate. The Poet Laureate Consultant in Poetry to the Library of Congress came from a donation in 1937 from Archer M. Huntington, a wealthy ship builder. Like many donations it came with strings attached. In this case Huntington wanted the poet Joseph Auslander to be named to the position. MacLeish found little value in Auslander’s writing. However, MacLeish was happy that having Auslander in the post attracted many other poets, such as Robinson Jeffers and Robert Frost, to hold readings at the library. He set about establishing the consultantship as a revolving post rather than a lifetime position.[7]:327 In 1943, MacLeish displayed his love of poetry and the Library of Congress by naming Louise Bogan to the position. Bogan, who had long been a hostile critic of MacLeish’s own writing, asked MacLeish why he appointed her to the position; MacLeish replied that she was the best person for the job. For MacLeish promoting the Library of Congress and the arts was vitally more important than petty personal conflicts.[9]

In the June 5, 1972 issue of The American Scholar, MacLeish laid out in an essay his philosophy on libraries and librarianship, further shaping modern thought on the subject. MacLeish remarked in the essay that libraries are more than a mere collection of books. "If books are reports on the mysteries of the world and our existence in it, libraries remain reporting on the human mind, that particular mystery, still remains as countries lose their grandeur and universities are not certain what they are." For MacLeish, libraries are a massive report on the mysteries of human kind.[8]

Two collections of MacLeish's papers are held at the Yale Library Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library. These are the Archibald MacLeish Collection[10] and Archibald MacLeish Collection Addition.[11]

MacLeish had three children: Kenneth, Mary Hillard, and Peter.[12] He is also a great-uncle of film actress Laura Dern.[13]

Awards

Works

Poetry

  • "The Wild Old Wicked Man" and Other Poems (1968)
  • Actfive (1948)
  • Actfive and Other Poems (1948)
  • Class Poem (1915)
  • Collected Poems (1952)
  • Conquistador (1932)
  • Einstein (1929)
  • Elpenor (1933)
  • Frescoes for Mr. Rockefeller's City (1933)
  • Later Poems, 1951-1962
  • New Found Land New Found Land (1930)
  • New and Collected Poems, 1917-1976 (1976)
  • Nobodaddy (1926)
  • Poems, 1924-1933 (1935)
  • Songs for Eve (1954)
  • Songs for a Summer's Day (1915)
  • Streets in the Moon (1928)
  • The Collected Poems of Archibald MacLeish (1962)
  • The Hamlet of A. Macleish (1928)
  • The Happy Marriage (1924)
  • The Human Season, Selected Poems 1926-1972 (1972)
  • The Pot of Earth (1925)
  • Tower of Ivory (1917)

Prose

  • A Continuing Journey (1968)
  • A Time to Act: Selected Addresses (1943)
  • A Time to Speak (1941)
  • America Was Promises (1939)
  • American Opinion and the War: the Rede Lecture (1942)
  • Art Education and the Creative Process (1954)
  • Champion of a Cause: Essays and Addresses on Librarianship (1971)
  • Freedom Is the Right to Choose (1951)
  • Jews in America (1936)
  • Letters of Archibald MacLeish, 1907-1982 (1983)
  • Poetry and Experience (1961)
  • Poetry and Opinion: the Pisan Cantos of Ezra Pound (1974)
  • Public Speech (1936)
  • Riders on the Earth: Essays & Recollections (1978)
  • The American Cause The American Cause (1941)
  • The Dialogues of Archibald MacLeish and Mark Van Doren (1964)
  • The Eleanor Roosevelt Story (1965)
  • The Irresponsibles: A Declaration (1940)

Drama

  • Air Raid (1938)
  • An Evening's Journey to Conway (1967)
  • Colloquy for the States (1943)
  • Herakles (1967)
  • J.B. (1958)
  • Panic (1935)
  • Scratch (1971)
  • Six Plays (1980)
  • The American Story: Ten Broadcasts (1944)
  • The Fall of the City (1937)
  • The Great American Fourth of July Parade (1975)
  • The Land of the Free (1938)
  • The Trojan Horse (1952)
  • The Wild Old Wicked Man (1968)
  • This Music Crept By Me on the Waters (1953)
  • Three Short Plays (1961)
  • Union Pacific (ballet) (1934)

Sources

References

  1. ^ Archibald MacLeish at Find A Grave
  2. ^ Davis, Robert Gorham (August 10, 1986). "Lives of the Poet". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A0DE1DF1038F933A2575BC0A960948260. Retrieved December 26, 2007. 
  3. ^ "Archibald MacLeish". http://www.poets.org/poet.php/prmPID/47. Retrieved 3 December 2010. 
  4. ^ Geoffrey Wolff (2003). Black Sun: The Brief Transit and Violent Eclipse of Harry Crosby. New York Review of Books. ISBN 1590170660. http://books.google.com/books?id=RpVaAAAAMAAJ&pgis=1. 
  5. ^ 100 of the Most Important Leaders We Had in the 20th century (1999). American Libraries, 30(11), 39.
  6. ^ MacLeish, William H. (2001). Uphill with Archie : a son's journey. New York, NY [u.a.]: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0684824957.  page 141
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Donaldson, Scott (2001). Archibald MacLeish an American life. Lincoln, NE: Authors Guild Backprint. ISBN 978-0595170784. 
  8. ^ a b MacLeish, Archibald (June 5, 1972). "The Premise of Meaning". American Scholar (Washington, D.C.: Houghton Mifflin Company).  page 40
  9. ^ Alenier, Karen L.. "Beltway: A Poetry Quarterly" (Memorial Issue ed.). http://washingtonart.com/beltway/macleish.html. 
  10. ^ "Archibald MacLeish Collection (YCAL MSS 38)". http://hdl.handle.net/10079/fa/beinecke.macleish}. 
  11. ^ "Archibald MacLeish Collection Addition (YCAL MSS 269)". http://hdl.handle.net/10079/fa/beinecke.macleishadd. 
  12. ^ "We Pay Our Respects To—Archibald MacLeish". Broadcasting & Cable (Washington, D.C.: Broadcasting Publications, Inc.) 22 (19): 73, 88. May 11, 1942. 
  13. ^ Harris, Will. "Laura Dern". http://www.avclub.com/articles/laura-dern,63093/. 

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Government offices
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New Office		 Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs
December 20, 1944 – August 17, 1945		 Succeeded by
William Benton



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