aromatherapy

More about Aromatherapy:
Purpose
Preparations
Precautions
Side effects
Research and general acceptance
Resources

Definition

Aromatherapy is the therapeutic use of plant-derived, aromatic essential oils to promote physical and psychological well-being. It is sometimes used in combination with massage and other therapeutic techniques as part of a holistic treatment approach.

Description

Origins

Aromatic plants have been employed for their healing, preservative, and pleasurable qualities throughout recorded history in both the East and West. As early as 1500 B.C. the ancient Egyptians used waters, oils, incense, resins, and ointments scented with botanicals for their religious ceremonies.

There is evidence that the Chinese may have recognized the benefits of herbal and aromatic remedies much earlier than this. The oldest known herbal text, Shen Nung's Pen Ts'ao (c. 2700-3000 B.C.) catalogs over 200 botanicals. Ayurveda, a practice of traditional Indian medicine that dates back over 2,500 years, also used aromatic herbs for treatment.

The Romans were well-known for their use of fragrances. They bathed with botanicals and integrated them into their state and religious rituals. So did the Greeks, with a growing awareness of the medicinal properties of herbs, as well. Greek physician and surgeon Pedanios Dioscorides, whose renown herbal text De Materia Medica (60 A.D.) was the standard textbook for Western medicine for 1,500 years, wrote extensively on the medicinal value of botanical aromatics. The Medica contained detailed information on over 500 plants and 4,740 separate medicinal uses for them, including an entire section on aromatics.

Written records of herbal distillation are found as early as the first century A.D., and around 1000 A.D., the noted Arab physician and naturalist Avicenna described the distillation of rose oil from rose petals, and the medicinal properties of essential oils in his writings. However, it wasn't until 1937, when French chemist René-Maurice Gattefossé published Aromatherapie: Les Huiles essentielles, hormones végé tales, that aromatherapie, or aromatherapy, was introduced in Europe as a medical discipline. Gattefossé, who was employed by a French perfumeur, discovered the healing properties of lavender oil quite by accident when he suffered a severe burn while working and used the closest available liquid, lavender oil, to soak it in.

In the late 20th century, French physician Jean Valnet used botanical aromatics as a front line treatment for wounded soldiers in World War II. He wrote about his use of essential oils and their healing and antiseptic properties, in his 1964 book Aromatherapie, traitement des maladies par les essences des plantes, which popularized the use of essential oils for medical and psychiatric treatment throughout France. Later, French biochemist Mauguerite Maury popularized the cosmetic benefits of essential oils, and in 1977 Robert Tisserand wrote the first English language book on the subject, The Art of Aromatherapy, which introduced massage as an adjunct treatment to aromatherapy and sparked its popularity in the United Kingdom.

In aromatherapy, essential oils are carefully selected for their medicinal properties. As essential oils are absorbed into the bloodstream through application to the skin or inhalation, their active components trigger certain pharmalogical effects (e.g., pain relief).

In addition to physical benefits, aromatherapy has strong psychological benefits. The volatility of an oil, or the speed at which it evaporates in open air, is thought to be linked to the specific psychological effect of an oil. As a rule of thumb, oils that evaporate quickly are considered emotionally uplifting, while slowly-evaporating oils are thought to have a calming effect.

Essential oils commonly used in aromatherapy treatment include:

Roman chamomile (Chamaemelum nobilis). An anti-inflammatory and analgesic. Useful in treating otitis media (earache), skin conditions, menstrual pains, and depression.
Clary sage (Salvia sclarea). This natural astringent is not only used to treat oily hair and skin, but is also said to be useful in regulating the menstrual cycle, improving mood, and controlling high blood pressure. Clary sage should not be used by pregnant women.
Lavender (Lavandula officinalis). A popular aromatherapy oil which mixes well with most essential oils, lavender has a wide range of medicinal and cosmetic applications, including treatment of insect bites, burns, respiratory infections, intestinal discomfort, nausea, migraine, insomnia, depression, and stress.
Myrtle (Myrtus communis). Myrtle is a fungicide, disinfectant, and antibacterial. It is often used in steam aromatherapy treatments to alleviate the symptoms of whooping cough, bronchitis, and other respiratory infections.
Neroli (bitter orange), (Citrus aurantium). Citrus oil extracted from bitter orange flower and peel and used to treat sore throat, insomnia, and stress and anxiety-related conditions.
Sweet orange (Citrus sinensis). An essential oil used to treat stomach complaints and known for its reported ability to lift the mood while relieving stress.

Peppermint (Mentha piperita). Relaxes and soothes the stomach muscles and gastrointestinal tract. Peppermint's actions as an anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, and antimicrobial also make it an effective skin treatment, and useful in fighting cold and flu symptoms.
Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis). Stimulating essential oil used to treat muscular and rheumatic complaints, as well as low blood pressure, gastrointestinal problems, and headaches.
Tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia). Has bactericidal, virucidal, fungicidal, and anti-inflammatory properties that make it a good choice for fighting infection. Recommended for treating sore throat and respiratory infections, vaginal and bladder infections, wounds, and a variety of skin conditions.
Ylang ylang (Cananga odorata). A sedative essential oil sometimes used to treat hypertension and tachycardia.

Essential oils contain active agents that can have potent physical effects. While some basic aromatherapy home treatments can be self-administered, medical aromatherapy should always be performed under the guidance of an aromatherapist, herbalist, massage therapist, nurse, or physician.

Inhalation

The most basic method of administering aromatherapy is direct or indirect inhalation of essential oils. Several drops of an essential oil can be applied to a tissue or

Aromatherapy Oils
Name	Description	Conditions treated
Bay laurel	Antiseptic, diuretic, sedative, etc.	Digestive problems, bronchitis, common cold, influenza, and scabies and lice. CAUTION: Don't use if pregnant.
Clary sage	Relaxant, anticonvulsive, antiinflammatory, and antiseptic	Menstrual and menopausal symptoms, burns, eczema, and anxiety. CAUTION: Don't use if pregnant.
Eucalyptus	Antiseptic, antibacterial, astringent,	Boils, breakouts, cough, common cold, influenza, and expectorant, and analgesic	sinusitis. CAUTION: Not to be taken orally.
Chamomile	Sedative, antiinflammatory, antiseptic, and pain reliever	Hay fever, burns, acne, arthritis, digestive problems, sunburn, and menstrual an menopausal symptoms.
Lavender	Analgesic, antiseptic, calming/soothing	Headache, depression, insomnia, stress, sprains, and nausea.
Peppermint	Pain reliever	Indigestion, nausea, headache, motion sickness, and muscle pain.
Rosemary	Antiseptic, stimulant, and diuretic	Indigestion, gas, bronchitis, fluid retention, and influenza. CAUTION: Don't use if pregnant or have epilepsy or hypertension.
Tarragon	Diuretic, laxative, antispasmodic, and stimulant	Menstrual and menopausal symptoms, gas, and indigestion. CAUTION: Don't use if pregnant.
Tea tree	Antiseptic and soothing	Common cold, bronchitis, abscesses, acne, vaginitis, and burns.
Thyme	Stimulant, antiseptic, antibacterial, and antispasmodic	Cough, laryngitis, diarrhea, gas, and intestinal worms. CAUTION: Don't use if pregnant or have hypertension.

handkerchief and gently inhaled. A small amount of essential oil can also be added to a bowl of hot water and used as a steam treatment. This technique is recommended when aromatherapy is used to treat respiratory and/or skin conditions. Aromatherapy steam devices are also available commercially. A warm bath containing essential oils can have the same effect as steam aromatherapy, with the added benefit of promoting relaxation. When used in a bath, water should be lukewarm rather than hot to slow the evaporation of the oil.

Essential oil diffusers, vaporizers, and light bulb rings can be used to disperse essential oils over a large area. These devices can be particularly effective in aromatherapy that uses essential oils to promote a healthier home environment. For example, eucalyptus and tea tree oil are known for their antiseptic qualities and are frequently used to disinfect sickrooms, and citronella and geranium can be useful in repelling insects.

Direct application

Because of their potency, essential oils are diluted in a carrier oil or lotion before being applied to the skin to prevent an allergic skin reaction. The carrier oil can be a vegetable or olive based one, such as wheat germ or avocado. Light oils, such as safflower, sweet almond, grape-seed, hazelnut, apricot seed, or peach kernel, may be absorbed more easily by the skin. Standard dilutions of essential oils in carrier oils range from 2–10%. However, some oils can be used at higher concentrations, and others should be diluted further for safe and effective use. The type of carrier oil used and the therapeutic use of the application may also influence how the essential oil is mixed. Individuals should seek guidance from a health-care professional and/or aromatherapist when diluting essential oils.

Massage is a common therapeutic technique used in conjunction with aromatherapy to both relax the body and thoroughly administer the essential oil treatment. Essential oils can also be used in hot or cold compresses and soaks to treat muscle aches and pains (e.g., lavender and ginger). As a sore throat remedy, antiseptic and soothing essential oils (e.g., tea tree and sage) can be thoroughly mixed with water and used as a gargle or mouthwash.

Internal use

Some essential oils can be administered internally in tincture, infusion, or suppository form to treat certain symptoms or conditions; however, this treatment should never be self-administered. Essential oils should only be taken internally under the supervision of a qualified healthcare professional.

As non-prescription botanical preparations, the essential oils used in aromatherapy are typically not paid for by health insurance. The self-administered nature of the therapy controls costs to some degree. Aromatherapy treatment sessions from a professional aromatherapist are not covered by health insurance in most cases, although aromatherapy performed in conjunction with physical therapy, nursing, therapeutic massage, or other covered medical services may be. Individuals should check with their insurance provider to find out about their specific coverage.

The adage "You get what you pay for" usually applies when purchasing essential oils, as bargain oils are often adulterated, diluted, or synthetic. Pure essential oils can be expensive; and the cost of an oil will vary depending on its quality and availability.

— Paula Ford-Martin

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5min Related Video: aromatherapy

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Dictionary: a·ro·ma·ther·a·py (ə-rō'mə-thĕr'ə-pē) pronunciation

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n., pl., -pies.
The use of selected fragrant substances in lotions and inhalants in an effort to affect mood and promote health.

Britannica Concise Encyclopedia: aromatherapy

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Therapy using essential oils and water-based colloids extracted from plant materials to promote physical, emotional, and spiritual health and balance. Single or combined extracts may be diffused into inhaled air, used in massage oil, or added to bathwater. Inhaled molecules of these extracts stimulate the olfactory nerve, sending messages to the brain's limbic system (the seat of memory, learning, and emotion) that are said to trigger physiological responses (e.g., eucalyptus relieves congestion, lavender promotes relaxation). Mainstream medical practitioners question the claim of independent physiological effects; they consider many of the benefits more likely due to the conditioned responses that odours can reinforce or help create. The oils and solutions used have been shown to have certain effects but are not standardized. The few risks involved include allergic reactions.

For more information on aromatherapy, visit Britannica.com.

Food and Fitness: aromatherapy

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The combined use of pure plant extracts or so-called essential oils and various massage techniques. It is promoted as a method of natural healing. According to practitioners, substances released from the oils have a therapeutic value when inhaled or when they penetrate the skin. It is also claimed that certain oils aid slimming by stimulating circulation of the lymph and blood so that surplus body fluids are removed. Some practitioners think that aromatherapy helps to reduce cellulite in the belief that the main cause of cellulite is a sluggish circulation and high fluid retention. Most dietitians dispute these claims.

A bottle of aromatherapy oil containing extracts of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) in spring water is included as part of the ‘Revolutionary Three in One Diet’, a high protein, high fat, and low carbohydrate diet. The oils are said to act as diuretics, eliminating excess body water. Although there is no rigorous scientific evidence to support this claim, any weight loss associated with fennel would be regained quickly when the dieter started drinking and eating normally again. If fennel does have its claimed effects, there is a risk of dehydration.

Alternative Medicine Encyclopedia: Aromatherapy

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Definition

Origins

There is evidence that the Chinese may have recognized the benefits of herbal and aromatic remedies much earlier than this. The oldest known herbal text, Shen Nung's Pen Ts'ao (c. 2700–3000 B.C.) catalogs over 200 botanicals. Ayurveda, a practice of traditional Indian medicine that dates back more than 2,500 years, also used aromatic herbs for treatment.

The Romans were well known for their use of fragrances. They bathed with botanicals and integrated them into their state and religious rituals. So did the Greeks, with a growing awareness of the medicinal properties of herbs. Greek physician and surgeon Pedanios Dioscorides, whose renown herbal text De Materia Medica (60 A.D.) was the standard textbook for Western medicine for 1,500 years, wrote extensively on the medicinal value of botanical aromatics. The Medica contained detailed information on some 500 plants and 4,740 separate medicinal uses for them, including an entire section on aromatics.

In the late twentieth century, French physician Jean Valnet used botanical aromatics as a front line treatment

AROMATHERAPY OILS
Name	Description	Conditions treated
Bay laurel	Antiseptic, diuretic, sedative, etc.	Digestive problems, bronchitis, common cold, influenza, and scabies and lice. CAUTION: Don't use if pregnant.
Clary sage	Relaxant, anticonvulsive, antiinflammatory, and antiseptic	Menstrual and menopausal symptoms, burns, eczema, and anxiety. CAUTION: Don't use if pregnant.
Eucalyptus	Antiseptic, antibacterial, astringent, expectorant, and analgesic	Boils, breakouts, cough, common cold, influenza, and sinusitis. CAUTION: Not to be taken orally.
Chamomile	Sedative, antiinflammatory, antiseptic, and pain reliever	Hay fever, burns, acne, arthritis, digestive problems, and menstrual an menopausal symptoms.
Lavender	Analgesic, antiseptic, calming/soothing	Headache, depression, insomnia, stress, sprains, and nausea.
Peppermint	Pain reliever	Indigestion, nausea, headache, motion sickness, and muscle pain.
Rosemary	Antiseptic, stimulant, and diuretic	Indigestion, gas, bronchitis, fluid retention, and influenza. CAUTION: Don't use if pregnant or have epilepsy or hypertension.
Tarragon	Diuretic, laxative, antispasmodic, and stimulant	Menstrual and menopausal symptoms, gas, and indigestion. CAUTION: Don't use if pregnant.
Tea tree	Antiseptic and soothing	Common cold, bronchitis, abscesses, acne, vaginitis, and burns.
Thyme	Stimulant, antiseptic, antibacterial, and antispasmodic	Cough, laryngitis, diarrhea, gas, and intestinal worms. CAUTION: Don't use if pregnant or have hypertension.

for wounded soldiers in World War II. He wrote about his use of essential oils and their healing and antiseptic properties, in his 1964 book Aromatherapie, traitement des maladies par les essences des plantes, which popularized the use of essential oils for medical and psychiatric treatment throughout France. Later, French biochemist Mauguerite Maury popularized the cosmetic benefits of essential oils, and in 1977 Robert Tisserand wrote the first English language book on the subject, The Art of Aromatherapy, which introduced massage as an adjunct treatment to aromatherapy and sparked its popularity in the United Kingdom.

Benefits

Aromatherapy offers diverse physical and psychological benefits, depending on the essential oil or oil combination and method of application used. Some common medicinal properties of essential oils used in aromatherapy include: analgesic, antimicrobial, antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, astringent, sedative, antispasmodic, expectorant, diuretic, and sedative. Essential oils are used to treat a wide range of symptoms and conditions, including, but not limited to, gastrointestinal discomfort, skin conditions, menstrual pain and irregularities, stress-related conditions, mood disorders, circulatory problems, respiratory infections, and wounds.

Description

In addition to physical benefits, aromatherapy has strong psychological benefits. The volatility of an oil, or the speed at which it evaporates in open air, is thought to be linked to its specific psychological effect. As a rule of thumb, oils that evaporate quickly are considered emotionally uplifting, while slowly-evaporating oils are thought to have a calming effect.

Essential oils commonly used in aromatherapy treatment include:

Roman chamomile (Chamaemelum nobilis). An anti-inflammatory and analgesic. Useful in treating otitis media (earache), skin conditions, menstrual pains, and depression.

Clary sage (Salvia sclarea). This natural astringent is not only used to treat oily hair and skin, but is also said to be useful in regulating the menstrual cycle, improving mood, and controlling high blood pressure. Clary sage should not be used by pregnant women.
Lavender (Lavandula officinalis). A popular aromatherapy oil that mixes well with most essential oils, lavender has a wide range of medicinal and cosmetic applications, including treatment of insect bites, burns, respiratory infections, intestinal discomfort, nausea, migraine, insomnia, depression, and stress.
Myrtle (Myrtus communis). Myrtle is a fungicide, disinfectant, and antibacterial. It is often used in steam aromatherapy treatments to alleviate the symptoms of whooping cough, bronchitis, and other respiratory infections.
Neroli (bitter orange), (Citrus aurantium). Citrus oil extracted from bitter orange flower and peel and used to treat sore throat, insomnia, and stress and anxiety-related conditions.
Sweet orange (Citrus sinensis). An essential oil used to treat stomach complaints and known for its reported ability to lift the mood while relieving stress.
Peppermint (Mentha piperita). Relaxes and soothes the stomach muscles and gastrointestinal tract. Peppermint's actions as an anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, and antimicrobial also make it an effective skin treatment, and useful in fighting cold and flu symptoms. In addition, research in 2002 found that peppermint scent helped athletes run faster and perform more push–ups than control subjects with odorless strips under their noses.
Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis). Stimulating essential oil used to treat muscular and rheumatic complaints, as well as low blood pressure, gastrointestinal problems, and headaches. Recently. Brain scans have shown that fragrance of rosemary increases blood circulation in the brain.
Tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia). Has bactericidal, virucidal, fungicidal, and anti-inflammatory properties that make it a good choice for fighting infection. Recommended for treating sore throat and respiratory infections, vaginal and bladder infections, wounds, and a variety of skin conditions.
Ylang ylang (Cananga odorata). A sedative essential oil sometimes used to treat hypertension and tachycardia.

Inhalation

The most basic method of administering aromatherapy is direct or indirect inhalation of essential oils. Several drops of an essential oil can be applied to a tissue or handkerchief and gently inhaled. A small amount of essential oil can also be added to a bowl of hot water and used as a steam treatment. This technique is recommended when aromatherapy is used to treat respiratory and/or skin conditions. Aromatherapy steam devices are also available commercially. A warm bath containing essential oils can have the same effect as steam aromatherapy, with the added benefit of promoting relaxation. When used in a bath, water should be lukewarm rather than hot to slow the evaporation of the oil.

Direct Application

Because of their potency, essential oils are diluted in a carrier oil or lotion before being applied to the skin to prevent an allergic skin reaction. The carrier oil can be a vegetable or olive based one, such as wheat germ or avocado. Light oils, such as safflower, sweet almond, grapeseed, hazelnut, apricot seed, or peach kernel, may be absorbed more easily by the skin. Standard dilutions of essential oils in carrier oils range from 2–10%. However, some oils can be used at higher concentrations, and others should be diluted further for safe and effective use. The type of carrier oil used and the therapeutic use of the application may also influence how the essential oil is mixed. Individuals should seek guidance from a healthcare professional and/or aromatherapist when diluting essential oils.

Internal Use

As non-prescription botanical preparations, the essential oils used in aromatherapy are typically not paid for by health insurance. The self-administered nature of the therapy controls costs to some degree. Aromatherapy treatment sessions from a professional aromatherapist are not covered by health insurance in most cases, although aromatherapy performed in conjunction with physical therapy, nursing, therapeutic massage, or other covered medical services may be covered. Individuals should check with their insurance provider to find out about their specific coverage.

Preparations

The method of extracting an essential oil varies by plant type. Common methods include water or steam distillation and cold pressing. Quality essential oils should be unadulterated and extracted from pure botanicals. Many aromatherapy oils on the market are synthetic and/or diluted, contain solvents, or are extracted from botanicals grown with pesticides or herbicides. To ensure best results, essential oils should be made from pure organic botanicals and labeled by their full botanical name. Oils should always be stored in dark bottles out of direct light.

Before using essential oils on the skin, individuals should perform a skin patch test by applying a small amount of the diluted oil behind the wrist and covering it with a bandage or cloth for up to 12 hours. If redness or irritation occurs, the oil should be diluted further and a second skin test performed, or it should be avoided altogether. Individuals should never apply undiluted essential oils to the skin unless advised to do so by a trained healthcare professional.

Precautions

Individuals should only take essential oils internally under the guidance and close supervision of a health care professional. Some oils, such as eucalyptus, wormwood, and sage, should never be taken internally. Many essential oils are highly toxic and should not be used at all in aromatherapy. These include (but are not limited to) bitter almond, pennyroyal, mustard, sassafras, rue, and mugwort.

Citrus-based essential oils, including bitter and sweet orange, lime, lemon, grapefruit, and tangerine, are phototoxic, and exposure to direct sunlight should be avoided for at least four hours after their application.

Other essential oils, such as cinnamon leaf, black pepper, juniper, lemon, white camphor, eucalyptus blue gum, ginger, peppermint, pine needle, and thyme can be extremely irritating to the skin if applied in high enough concentration or without a carrier oil or lotion. Caution should always be exercised when applying essential oils topically. Individuals should never apply undiluted essential oils to the skin unless directed to do so by a trained healthcare professional and/or aromatherapist.

Individuals taking homeopathic remedies should avoid black pepper, camphor, eucalyptus, and peppermint essential oils. These oils may act as a remedy antidote to the homeopathic treatment.

Children should only receive aromatherapy treatment under the guidance of a trained aromatherapist or healthcare professional. Some essential oils may not be appropriate for treating children, or may require additional dilution before use on children.

Certain essential oils should not be used by pregnant or nursing women or by people with specific illnesses or physical conditions. Individuals suffering from any chronic or acute health condition should inform their healthcare provider before starting treatment with any essential oil.

Asthmatic individuals should not use steam inhalation for aromatherapy, as it can aggravate their condition.

Essential oils are flammable, and should be kept away from heat sources.

Side Effects

Side effects vary by the type of essential oil used. Citrus-based essential oils can cause heightened sensitivity to sunlight. Essential oils may also cause contact dermatitis, an allergic reaction characterized by redness and irritation. Anyone experiencing an allergic reaction to an essential oil should discontinue its use and contact their healthcare professional for further guidance. Individuals should do a small skin patch test with new essential oils before using them extensively.

Research & General Acceptance

The antiseptic and bactericidal qualities of some essential oils (such as tea tree and peppermint) and their value in fighting infection has been detailed extensively in both ancient and modern medical literature.

Recent research in mainstream medical literature has also shown that aromatherapy has a positive psychological impact on patients. Several clinical studies involving both post-operative and chronically ill subjects showed that massage with essential oils can be helpful in improving emotional well-being, and consequently, promoting the healing process.

Today, the use of holistic aromatherapy is widely accepted in Europe, particularly in Great Britain, where it is commonly used in conjunction with massage as both a psychological and physiological healing tool. In the United States, where aromatherapy is often misunderstood as solely a cosmetic treatment, the mainstream medical community has been slower to accept its use.

Training & Certification

Certification or licensing is currently not required to become an aromatherapist in the United States; however, many states require that healthcare professionals who practice the "hands-on" therapies often used in conjunction with aromatherapy (e.g., massage) to be licensed. There are state-licensed educational institutions that offer certificates and/or diplomas in aromatherapy training. Individuals interested in aromatherapy treatment from a professional aromatherapist may be able to obtain a referral from one of these institutions, or from their current healthcare provider.

Resources

Books

Lawless, Julia. The Complete Illustrated Guide To Aromatherapy. Rockport, MA: Element Books Ltd, 1997.

Schnaubelt, Kurt. Medical Aromatherapy: Healing With Essential Oils. Berkeley, CA: Frog Ltd, 1999.

Periodicals

Organizations

Claps, Frank."Training Scents: You May be Able to Sniff Your Way to Better Workouts with Tricks from the Aromatherapist's Bag." Men's Fitness (May 2002):34.

Stanten, Michele, and Selene Yeager."Smell this for Instant Energy: the Easiest Way to Boost your Workouts. (Fitness News)." Prevention (April 2002):76.

National Association of Holistic Aromatherapy. 836 Hanley Industrial Court, St. Louis, MO 63144. 888-ASK-NAHA.

[Article by: Paula Ford-Martin; Teresa G. Odle]

Science Q&A: What is aromatherapy?

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Aromatherapy involves using particular scents derived from essential oils to influence emotions and to treat and cure minor ailments. Rene Maurice Gatlefosse, a French cosmetic chemist, introduced the theory in the late 1970s. It is based on the fact that the olfactory and emotional centers of the body are connected. By inhaling different aromas, emotional concerns as well as physical complaints are said to be eased.

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Occultism & Parapsychology Encyclopedia: Aromatherapy

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Term used for treatment of illness and maintenance of general physical health using essential oils distilled from plants. Virtually unknown to the modern world twenty years ago, aromatherapy is now considered the fastest growing natural healing art in the United States.

Aromatherapy treatments were known in ancient Egypt, Greece, Rome, and other civilizations, while early Arabian physicians developed the distillation of aromatic oils through experiments in alchemy. The term aromatherapy derives from the writings of the French chemist Rene-Maurice Gattefosse, whose book Aromatherapie was published in 1928. However, the modern popularity of aromatherapy is generally traced to Marguerite Maury and Jean Valnet. Maury, after developing a new technique for the extraction and use of oils, published her findings in 1962, for which she earned the Prix international d'esthetique et cosmetologie. Jean Valnet also contributed to the field of aromatherapy by publishing the widely read book The Practice of Aromatherapy in 1964. Both of their works were picked up by the New Age movement in the 1980s and have become an integral part of the holistic health movement.

Essential oils are highly condensed vegetal extracts containing hormones, vitamins, antibodies, and antiseptics. They are considered the most concentrated form of herbal energy, widely used in pharmacy, cosmetology, and perfumery. Various experiments and studies have shown essential oils to be effective therapeutic agents, particularly in cases of disease associated with bacterial, viral, and fungal infection. Essential oils also support and strengthen the human immune system.

Contemporary aromatherapy can be loosely grouped into four main categories: esoteric aromatherapy, fragrance aromatherapy (or aromachology), massage or English aromatherapy, and medical aromatherapy. Esoteric aromatherapy is concerned with the energetic effects of essential oils on the subtle bodies. Aromachology studies the psychological effects of fragrances.

English and medical aromatherapy both address the effects of essential oils on the physical body. They insist upon the use of essential oils from single, identifiable plant sources. Essential oils are used both as natural tonics and as therapeutic agents. Medical aromatherapists use essential oils internally as well as by inhalation and by topical application. Aromatherapists trained in the English method dilute essential oils in other oils for massage, and diffuse the oils for inhalation. By way of diffusing, the healing is achieved through the olfactory senses, which lead from the nose to the limbic system, the most primitive area of the brain. Thus, the essential oils are said to affect the body in a primal and often subconscious manner.

The philosophy behind aromatherapy is connected to the Gaia Hypothesis, which conceptualizes the earth as a living organism, seeing plants and animals together as inextricable parts of that organism. In Aromatherapy Workbook, Lavabre writes, "Essential oils are the 'quintessences' of the alchemists. In this sense, they condense the spiritual and vital forces of the plants in material form. Therefore, they act on the biological level to strengthen the natural defenses of the body, and are the media of a direct human-plant communication on the energetic and spiritual plane." Aromatherapy postulates subtle energies of aromatic plants related to life force, which can be correlated with ancient Chinese concepts of Yin and Yang.

A basic tenet of aromatherapy is to match a specific remedy with a particular malady, designed for a unique body chemistry. As such, aromatherapy can employ a wide variety of plant oils to treat similar conditions. Examples of aromatherapy remedies for common conditions include:

Colds—7ml Rosemarin officitualus verbanion, 3ml Eucalyptus globulus, 0.25ml mentha pepierita, for inhalation through a diffuser
Headache—Two drops lavender, rubbed on temples or back of neck
Muscle Strain—Massage oil created with five drops eucalyptus, five drops peppermint, five drops ginger, diluted in one tablespoon vegetable oil
Stress Reduction Soak—two drops lavender lavera, two drops glang glang, in one tablespoon epson salt, place in warm tub.

Sources:

Aromatic Thymes. http://www.aromaticthymes.com/. April 17, 2000.

Lavabre, Marcel. Aromatherapy Workbook. Rochester, Vt.: Healing Arts Press, 1990.

National Association for Holistic Aromatherapy. http://www.naha.org/about.html. April 17, 2000.

Schnaubelt, Kurt Ph.D. Advanced Aromatherapy: The Science of Essential Oil Therapy. Rochester, Vt.: Healing Arts Press, 1998.

——. Aromatherapy Course, Cited Pierre Frandomine and Daniel Penoel, formula for colds. San Rafael, Calif., 1985.

Severns, Dorothy & Thorpe, Penni, Letter from Into the Scented Garden Aromatics San Mateo, Calif., 2000.

Stead, Christiane. The Power of Holistic Aromatherapy. Poole, England: Javalin Books, 1986.

The Burton Goldberg Group. Alternative Medicine: A Definitive Guide. Tiburon, Calif.: Future Medicine Publishing, Inc., 1997.

Thompson, C. J. S. The Mystery and Lure of Perfume. London, 1927.

Tisserand, Robert. Aromatherapy. 1977. Reprint, London: Mayflower, 1979.

Worwood, Valerie Ann. The Complete Book of Essential Oils and Aromatherapy. San Rafael, Calif.: New World Library, 1991.

Veterinary Dictionary: aromatherapy

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A complementary therapeutic modality in which volatile (essential) oils extracted from aromatic plant material are used to promote health and well-being; largely unexplored in veterinary medicine.

Wikipedia: Aromatherapy

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Aromatherapy is a form of alternative medicine that uses volatile plant materials, known as essential oils, and similar aromatic compounds from plants, for the purpose of improving a person's mood, cognitive function or health. Preliminary scientific evidence is growing in all these areas. ^[1] An aroma therapist is the person who performs the aromatherapy.

Aromatherapy is a generic term. It is used by manufacturers (of personal care, wellness and hygiene products) as well as practitioners, including massage therapists, chiropractors, nurses and doctors. Over-the-counter products that make use of essential oils (or their constituents, such as menthol and methyl salicylate) include mouthwashes, liniments and "rubbing ointments", such as Listerine, Mentholatum Deep Heat and Vicks VapoRub. However, aromatherapy purists insist that neither essential oil constituents as such, nor synthetic fragrant chemicals, should ever be used.^[2]

Because many essential oils are potent antimicrobials, they can be useful in the treatment of infectious disease.^[3] They are used as medicines, often in combination with other herbal preparations, by a small group of doctors in France. In nursing, essential oils are increasingly used in pain management, anxiety/depression, and Alzheimer's disease.^[4] Aromatherapy may be used in combination with other forms of alternative medicine. Terms such as 'essential oil therapy' 'clinical aromatherapy' and 'medical aromatherapy' have been used by some journals, educational institutions and practitioners, in order to distance themselves from association with the commercial aspects.

1 History
2 Modes of application
3 Materials
4 Theory
5 Choice and purchase
6 Price
7 Pharmacological effects attributed to essential oils
8 Popular uses
9 Efficacy
10 Safety concerns
11 Table of vaporization temperatures
12 See also
13 Notes and references
14 Further reading
15 External links

History

Aromatherapy has origins in antiquity with the use of infused aromatic oils, made by macerating dried plant material in fatty oil, heating and then filtering. Many such oils, and their healing properties, are described by Dioscorides in his De Materia Medica, written in the first century.^[5] Distilled essential oils have been employed as medicines since the invention of distillation in the eleventh century,^[6] when Avicenna isolated essential oils using steam distillation.^[7]

The concept of aromatherapy was first mooted by a small number of European scientists and doctors, in about 1907. In 1937, the word first appeared in print in a French book on the subject: Aromathérapie: Les Huiles Essentielles, Hormones Végétales by René-Maurice Gattefossé, a chemist. An English version was published in 1993.^[8] In 1910, Gattefossé burned a hand very badly in a laboratory explosion. The hand developed gas gangrene, which he successfully, and intentionally, treated with lavender oil. This helped greatly to fire an already existing interest in aromatherapy, though it was not the "lucky accident" that is sometimes recounted by others.

A French surgeon, Jean Valnet, pioneered the medicinal uses of essential oils, which he used as antiseptics in the treatment of wounded soldiers during World War II.^[9]

Modes of application

The modes of application of aromatherapy include:

Aerial diffusion: for environmental fragrancing or aerial disinfection
Direct inhalation: for respiratory disinfection, decongestion, expectoration as well as psychological effects
Topical applications: for general massage, baths, compresses, therapeutic skin care

Materials

Some of the materials employed include:

Essential oils: Fragrant oils extracted from plants chiefly through steam distillation (e.g. eucalyptus oil) or expression (grapefruit oil). However, the term is also occasionally used to describe fragrant oils extracted from plant material by any solvent extraction.
Absolutes: Fragrant oils extracted primarily from flowers or delicate plant tissues through solvent or supercritical fluid extraction (e.g. rose absolute). The term is also used to describe oils extracted from fragrant butters, concretes, and enfleurage pommades using ethanol.
Phytoncides: Various volatile organic compounds from plants that kill microbes. Many terpene-based fragrant oils and sulfuric compounds from plants in the genus "Allium" are phytoncides, though the latter are likely less commonly used in aromatherapy due to their disagreeable odors.
Herbal distillates or hydrosols: The aqueous by-products of the distillation process (e.g. rosewater). There are many herbs that make herbal distillates and they have culinary uses, medicinal uses and skin care uses. Common herbal distillates are rose, lemon balm and chamomile.
Infusions: Aqueous extracts of various plant material (e.g. infusion of chamomile)
Carrier oils: Typically oily plant base triacylglycerides that dilute essential oils for use on the skin (e.g. sweet almond oil)

Theory

Aromatherapy is the treatment or prevention of disease by use of essential oils. Two basic mechanisms are offered to explain the purported effects. One is the influence of aroma on the brain, especially the limbic system through the olfactory system. The other is the direct pharmacological effects of the essential oils.^[10] While precise knowledge of the synergy between the body and aromatic oils is often claimed by aromatherapists, the efficacy of aromatherapy remains to be proven. However, some preliminary clinical studies show positive effects.^[11]^[12]

In the English-speaking world, practitioners tend to emphasize the use of oils in massage. Aromatherapy tends to be regarded as a complementary modality at best and a pseudoscientific fraud at worst.^[13]

On the continent, especially in France, where it originated, aromatherapy is incorporated into mainstream medicine. There, the use of the antiseptic, antiviral, antifungal, and antibacterial properties of oils in the control of infections is emphasized over the approaches familiar to North Americans. In France some essential oils are regulated as prescription drugs, and thus administered by a physician. French doctors use a technique called the aromatogram to guide their decision on which essential oil to use. First the doctor cultures a sample of infected tissue or secretion from the patient. Next the growing culture is divided among petri dishes supplied with agar. Each petri dish is inoculated with a different essential oil to determine which have the most activity against the target strain of microorganism. The antiseptic activity manifests as a pattern of inhibited growth.^[14]^[15]

In many countries, essential oils are included in the national pharmacopoeia, but aromatherapy as science has never been recognized as a valid branch of medicine in the United States, Russia, Germany, or Japan.

Essential oils (EOs), phytoncides, and other natural VOCs work in different ways. At the scent level they activate the limbic system and emotional centers of the brain. When applied to the skin (commonly in form of "massage oils," i.e., 1%–10% solutions of EO in carrier oil) they activate thermal receptors and kill microbes and fungi. Internal application of essential oil preparations (mainly in pharmacological drugs; generally not recommended for home use apart from dilution—1%–5% in fats or mineral oils, or hydrosoles) may stimulate the immune system.

Choice and purchase

Oils with standardized content of components (marked FCC, for Food Chemical Codex) have to contain a specified amount of certain aroma chemicals that normally occur in the oil. But there is no law that the chemicals cannot be added in synthetic form in order to meet the criteria established by the FCC for that oil. For instance, lemongrass essential oil has to contain 75% aldehyde to meet the FCC profile for that oil, but that aldehyde can come from a chemical refinery instead of from lemongrass. To say that FCC oils are "food grade" then makes them seem natural when in fact they are not necessarily so.

Undiluted essential oils suitable for aromatherapy are termed therapeutic grade, but in countries where the industry is not regulated, therapeutic grade is based on industry consensus and is not a regulatory category. Some aromatherapists take advantage of this situation to make misleading claims about the origin and even content of the oils they use. Likewise, claims that an oil's purity is vetted by mass spectrometry or gas chromatography have limited value, since all such testing can do is show that various chemicals occur in the oil. Many of the chemicals that occur naturally in essential oils are manufactured by the perfume industry and adulterate essential oils because they are cheaper. There is no way to distinguish between these synthetic additives and the naturally occurring chemicals.

The best instrument for determining whether an essential oil is adulterated is an educated nose. Many people can distinguish between natural and synthetic scents, but it takes experience.

Price

Oils vary in price based on the amount of the harvest, the country of origin, the type of extraction used (steam distillation, CO₂ extract, enfleurage), and how desirable the oil is. Indian Sandalwood (Santalum album) is considered more desirable than Australian Sandalwood (Santalum spicatum), based upon the aroma, and is twice as costly, mainly because the tree that yields Indian Sandalwood essential oils is endangered, and because S. Spicatum essential oil contains only about 17% α-santalol and 7% β-santalol - much less than S. Album oil^[16]. Organic and wild harvested essential oils also tend to be more expensive.

Price is also determined by whether the oil is 'cut' or not. There are few companies and individuals that produce then resell 'pure', unadulterated essential oils. Many times oils are extracted, by whatever form, then repressed or thinned with a carrier of alcohol or some such substance. This lowers the quality of the healing properties of the oils. It can also lower the price necessary for a profit to be made, especially with higher priced oils such as rose or frankinscense.

Pharmacological effects attributed to essential oils

Antibacterial: In vitro testing has confirmed antibacterial effects in certain oils including rosemary, clove, lime, cinnamon, and tea tree oil.^[17]^[18]^[19]^[20]
Antiviral: Supported for tea tree oil, lemongrass, sandalwood, peppermint, ginger, thyme, and hyssop in in vitro testing against Herpes^[21]^[22]^[23]^[24]^[25]
Antifungal: Supported by in vitro testing for lavender, thyme, clove, juniper, and tea tree oil^[26]^[27]^[28]^[29]^[30]
Anti-inflammatory: Reported in in-vitro assays of clove, cinnamon, sage, eucalyptus, black cumin and bay leaf^[31]^[32]^[33]^[34]^[35]^[36]
Anxiolytic: Reported in animal models using oils of lavender, rose and angelica ^[37]^[38]^[39]
Antispasmotic (spasmolytic): Spasmolytic properties for catnip, lavender and New Zealand tea tree oils have been reported in animal studies.^[40]^[41]^[42]^[43]
Invigorating:^{[citation needed]}
Antioxidant:^{[citation needed]}

Popular uses

Basil is used in perfumery for its clear, sweet and mildly spicy aroma. In aromatherapy, it is used for sharpening sexual concentration, for its uplifting effect on depression, and to relieve headaches and migraines. Basil oil has many chemotypes and some are known to be emmenagogues and should be avoided during pregnancy.
Bergamot is one of the most popular oils in perfumery. It is an excellent insect repellent and may be helpful for both the urinary tract and for the digestive tract. It is useful for skin conditions linked to stress, such as cold sores and chicken pox, especially when combined with eucalyptus oil. Bergamot is a flavoring agent in Earl Grey tea. Cold-pressed Bergamot oil contains bergaptene, a strong photosensitizer when applied to the skin, so only distilled or 'bergaptene-free' types can be topically used.
Black pepper has a sharp and spicy aroma. Common uses include stimulating the circulation and for muscular aches and pains. Skin application is useful for bruises, since it stimulates the circulation.
Citronella oil, obtained from a relative of lemongrass, is used as an insect repellent and in perfumery.
Clove oil is a topical analgesic, especially useful in dentistry. It is also used an antiseptic, antispasmodic, carminative, and antiemetic.
Eucalyptus oil is often used in combination with peppermint to provide relief for the airways in case of cold or flu.
Geranium oil is used as an astringent, antiseptic and diuretic.
Jasmine is used as an aphrodisiac.
Lavender oil is used as an antiseptic, to soothe minor cuts and burns, to calm and relax, for insomnia and to soothe headaches and migraines.
Lemon oil is uplifting and anti-stress/anti-depressant. In a Japanese study, lemon essential oil in vapour form has been found to reduce stress in mice.^[44]
Lemon oil - Researchers at Ohio State University reveals that Lemon oil aroma may enhance one's mood, and help with relaxation.^[45]
Rose is used as an aphrodisiac.
Sandalwood oil is used as an aphrodisiac.
Tea tree oil and many other essential oils have topical (external) antimicrobial (i.e. antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, or antiparasitic) activity and are used as antiseptics, disinfectants,^[46] and in mouthrinses.
Thyme oil^[47]
Yarrow oil is used to reduce joint inflammation and relieve cold and influenza symptoms.
Ylang-ylang oil is used as an aphrodisiac.

Efficacy

Some benefits that have been linked to aromatherapy, such as relaxation and clarity of mind, may arise from the placebo effect rather than from the inherent properties of the scents themselves. The consensus among most medical professionals is that while some aromas have demonstrated effects on mood and relaxation and may have related benefits for patients, there is currently insufficient scientific proof of many of the claims made for aromatherapy.^[48] Scientific research on the cause and effect of aromatherapy is limited, although in vitro testing has revealed some antibacterial and antiviral effects and a few double blind studies have been published.^[49]^[50] Essential oils have a demonstrated efficacy in dental mouthwash products.^[51]

Like many alternative therapies, few controlled, double-blind studies have been carried out—a common explanation is that there is little incentive to do so if the results of the studies are not patentable. Researchers at Sloan-Kettering have found that aromatherapy significantly reduces claustrophobia attacks for patients undergoing MRI scans; however, studies of similar rigor are far from numerous.

Skeptical literature suggests that aromatherapy is based on the anecdotal evidence of its benefits rather than proof that aromatherapy can cure diseases. Scientists and medical professionals acknowledge that aromatherapy has limited scientific support, but critics argue that the claims of most aromatherapy practitioners go beyond the data, and/or that the studies are neither adequately controlled nor peer reviewed.

Some proponents of aromatherapy believe that the claimed effect of each type of oil is not caused by the chemicals in the oil interacting with the senses, but because the oil contains a distillation of the "life force" of the plant from which it is derived that will "balance the energies" of the body and promote healing or well-being by purging negative vibrations from the body's energy field. Arguing that there is no scientific evidence that healing can be achieved, and that the claimed "energies" even exist, many skeptics reject this form of aromatherapy as pseudoscience or even quackery.

van der Watt and Janca have discovered that some of psychological disorders can be healed with the therapy through inhalation exercises, suggesting that further scientific studies, especially toxicity data, need to be conducted and collected to validate the finding ^[52]. Other application include

to menopausal symptoms (inconclusive) ^[53]
to nausea (inconclusive) ^[54]^, ^[55]^, ^[56]

Safety concerns

In addition, there are potential safety concerns. Because essential oils are highly concentrated they can irritate the skin when used neat, that is undiluted.^{[citation needed]}. Therefore, they are normally diluted with a carrier oil for topical application. Phototoxic reactions may occur with citrus peel oils such as lemon or lime.^[57] Also, many essential oils have chemical components that are sensitisers (meaning that they will after a number of uses cause reactions on the skin, and more so in the rest of the body). Some of the chemical allergies could even be caused by pesticides, if the original plants are cultivated ^[58]^, ^[59]. Some oils can be toxic to some domestic animals, with cats being particularly prone.^[60]^[61]

Two common oils, lavender and tea tree, have been implicated in causing gynaecomastia, an abnormal breast tissue growth, in prepubescent boys, although the report which cites this potential issue is based on observations of only three boys (and so is not a scientific study), and two of those boys were significantly above average in weight for their age, thus already prone to gynaecomastia.^[62] A child hormone specialist at the University of Cambridge claimed "... these oils can mimic estrogens" and "people should be a little bit careful about using these products."^[63]

As with any bioactive substance, an essential oil that may be safe for the general public could still pose hazards for pregnant and lactating women.

While some advocate the ingestion of essential oils for therapeutic purposes, licensed aromatherapy professionals do not recommend self prescription due the highly toxic nature of some essential oil. Some very common oils like Eucalyptus are extremely toxic when taken internally. Doses as low as one teaspoon has been reported to cause clinically significant symptoms and severe poisoning can occur after ingestion of 4 to 5 ml.^[64] A few reported cases of toxic reactions like liver damage and seizures have occurred after ingestion of sage, hyssop, thuja, and cedar.^[65] Accidental ingestion may happen when oils are not kept out of reach of children.

Oils both ingested and applied to the skin can potentially have negative interaction with conventional medicine. For example, the topical use of methyl salicylate heavy oils like Sweet Birch and Wintergreen may cause hemorrhaging in users taking the anticoagulant Warfarin.

Adulterated oils may also pose problems depending on the type of substance used.

Table of vaporization temperatures

Plant common name	Scientific name	Part utilized	Temperature
Eucalyptus	Eucalyptus globulus	Leaves	130°C (266°F)
Hops	Humulus lupulus	Fruit	154°C (309°F)
Chamomile	Chamomilla recutita	Flowers	190°C (374°F)
Lavender	Lavandula angustifolia	Leaves	130°C (266°F)
Lemon balm	Melissa officinalis	Leaves	142°C (288°F)
Salvia	Salvia officinalis	Leaves	190°C (374°F)
Thyme	Thymus vulgaris	Herb	190°C (374°F)
Cannabis	Cannabis sativa	Flowers	180°C (356°F)

Notes and references

^ Edris AE, Pharmaceutical and therapeutic potentials of essential oils and their individual volatile constituents: a review, Phytotherapy Research, 21 (4): 308-323, 2007
^ Tisserand, Robert (1977). The Art of Aromatherapy. London: C.W. Daniel. ISBN 085207140X
^ Carson CF, Hammer KA, Riley TV, Melaleuca alternifolia (Tea Tree) oil: a review of antimicrobial and other medicinal properties, Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 19 (1): 50-26, doi: 10.1128/CMR.19.1.50-62.2006.
^ van der Watt G, Janca A. Aromatherapy in nursing and mental health care, Contemporary Nurse, 30 (1):69-75, 2008
^ Gunther, R.T. (ed.) (1959). The Greek Herbal of Dioscorides (translated by John Goodyer in 1655). New York: Hafner Publishing. OCLC 3570794
^ Forbes R.J. (1970). A short history of the art of distillation. Leiden: E.J. Brill. OCLC 2559231
^ Marlene Ericksen (2000), Healing with Aromatherapy, p. 9, McGraw-Hill Professional, ISBN 0658003828
^ Gattefossé, R.-M., & Tisserand, R. (1993). Gattefossé's aromatherapy. Saffron Walden: C.W. Daniel. ISBN 0852072368
^ Valnet, J., & Tisserand, R. (1990). The practice of aromatherapy: A classic compendium of plant medicines & their healing properties. Rochester, VT: Healing Arts Press. ISBN 0892813989
^ Seenivasan Prabuseenivasan , Manickkam Jayakumar and Savarimuthu Ignacimuthu (2006). "In vitro antibacterial activity of some plant essential oils". BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine 6 (39): 39. doi:10.1186/1472-6882-6-39.
^ Kim HJ (June 2007). "Effect of Aromatherapy Massage on Abdominal Fat and Body Image in Post-menopausal Women" (in Korean). Taehan Kanho Hakhoe Chi 37 (4): 603–12. PMID 17615482.
^ Rho KH, Han SH, Kim KS, Lee MS. (December 2006). "Effects of aromatherapy massage on anxiety and self-esteem in Korean elderly women: a pilot study". Int J Neurosci 116 (12): 1447–55. doi:10.1080/00207450500514268. PMID 17145679.
^ Barrett, Stephen. "Aromatherapy: Making Dollars out of Scents", Science & Pseudoscience Review in Mental Health. Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice (SRMHP). Retrieved on 2009-08-10.
^ The Aromatogram
^ Aromatogram
^ "Evaluation of the quality of sandalwood essential oils by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry.". http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14989484.
^ "Screening of the antibacterial effects of a variety of essential oils on microorganisms responsible for respiratory infections". Phytother Res. 21 (4): 374–7. April 2007. doi:10.1002/ptr.1968. PMID 17326042.
^ "Potential of rosemary oil to be used in drug-resistant infections". Altern Ther Health Med. 13 (5): 54–9. September-October 2007. PMID 17900043.
^ "In vitro antibacterial activity of some plant essential oils". BMC Complement Altern Med. 2006 Nov 30;6:39 6 (39). November 30, 2006. PMID 17134518.
^ "Melaleuca alternifolia essential oil possesses potent anti-staphylococcal activity extended to strains resistant to antibiotics". Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol.;19(3):. 19 (3): 539–44. 2006 July-September. PMID 17026838.
^ "Susceptibility of drug-resistant clinical herpes simplex virus type 1 strains to essential oils of ginger, thyme, hyssop, and sandalwood". Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 51 (5): 1859–62. 2007 May. doi:10.1128/AAC.00426-06. PMID 17353250.
^ "Virucidal effect of peppermint oil on the enveloped viruses herpes simplex virus type 1 and type 2 in vitro". Phytomedicine 10 (6-7): 504–10. 2003. doi:10.1078/094471103322331467. PMID 13678235.
^ "The inhibitory effect of essential oils on herpes simplex virus type-1 replication in vitro". Microbiol Immunol. 47 (9): 681–4. 2003. PMID 14584615.
^ "Antiviral activity of sandalwood oil against herpes simplex viruses-1 and -2". Phytomedicine. 6 (2): 119–23. 1999 May. PMID 10374251.
^ "Antiviral activity of the volatile oils of Melissa officinalis L. against Herpes simplex virus type-2". Phytomedicine. 11 (7-8): 657–61. 2004 November. doi:10.1016/j.phymed.2003.07.014. PMID 15636181.
^ "Antioxidant properties of the essential oil of Eugenia caryophyllata and its antifungal activity against a large number of clinical Candida species". Mycoses. 50 (5): 403–6. 2007 September. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0507.2007.01391.x. PMID 17714361.
^ "Antifungal activity of the essential oil of Thymus pulegioides on Candida, Aspergillus and dermatophyte species". J Med Microbiol. 55 (Pt 10): 1367–73. 2006 October. PMID 17005785.
^ "Antifungal activity of the essential oil of Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree oil) against pathogenic fungi in vitro". Skin Pharmacol. 9 (6): 388–94. 1996. doi:10.1159/000211450. PMID 9055360.
^ "Antifungal activity of Juniperus essential oils against dermatophyte, Aspergillus and Candida strains". J Appl Microbiol. 100 (6): 1333–8. 2006 June. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2672.2006.02862.x. PMID 16696681.
^ "Antifungal activity of Lavandula angustifolia essential oil against Candida albicans yeast and mycelial form". Med Mycol. 43 (5): 391–6. 2005 August. doi:10.1080/13693780400004810. PMID 16178366.
^ "Effects of Salvia officinalis L. extract on experimental acute inflammation". Rev Med Chir Soc Med Nat Iasi. 111 (1): 290–4. 2007 January-March. PMID 17595884.
^ "The chemical composition and biological activity of clove essential oil, Eugenia caryophyllata (Syzigium aromaticum L. Myrtaceae): a short review". Phytother Res. 21 (6): 501–6. 2007 June. doi:10.1002/ptr.2124. PMID 17380552.
^ "Analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects of essential oils of Eucalyptus". J Ethnopharmacol. 89 (2-3): 277–83. 2003 December. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2003.09.007. PMID 14611892.
^ "Study on the antiinflammatory activity of essential oil from leaves of Cinnamomum osmophloeum". J Agric Food Chem. 53 (18): 7274–8. 2005-09-07. doi:10.1021/jf051151u. PMID 16131142.
^ "Black cumin seed essential oil, as a potent analgesic and antiinflammatory drug". Phytother Res. 18 (3): 195–9. 2004 March. doi:10.1002/ptr.1390. PMID 15103664.
^ "Analgesic and anti-inflammatory activity of the leaf essential oil of Laurus nobilis Linn". Phytother Res.;(7): 17 (7): 733–6. 2003 August. PMID 12916069.
^ "Anxiolytic effects of lavender oil inhalation on open-field behaviour in rats". Phytomedicine 14 (9): 613–20. 2007 September Epub 2007 May 4. doi:10.1016/j.phymed.2007.03.007. PMID 17482442.
^ "Anxiolytic-like effects of rose oil inhalation on the elevated plus-maze test in rats". Pharmacol Biochem Behav.;(): 77 (2): 361–4. 2004 February. PMID 14751465.
^ "The effects of angelica essential oil in three murine tests of anxiety". Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 79 (2): 377–82. 2004 October. doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2004.08.017. PMID 15501315.
^ Gilani AH, Shah AJ, Zubair A et al. (2009). "Chemical composition and mechanisms underlying the spasmolytic and bronchiodilatory properties of the essential oil of Nepeta cataria L." J Ethnopharmacol. 121:405-411.
^ Lis-Balchin M, Hart S. (1999). "Studies on the mode of action of the essential oil of lavender (Lavendula angustifolia P. Miller." Phytother Res. 13:540-542.
^ Lis-Balchin M, Hart SL. (1998). "An investigation of the actions of the essential oils of Manuka (leptospermum scoparium) and Kanuka (Kunzea ericoides), Myrtaceae on guinea-pig smooth muscle." J Pharm Pharmacol. 50:809-811.
^ Pisseri F, Bertoli A, Pistelli L. (2008). "Essential oils in medicine: principles of therapy." Parassitologia. 50:89-91.
^ "Lemon oil vapor causes an anti-stress effect via modulating the 5-HT and DA activities in mice.". PubMed.gov. 2006-06-15. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=16780969&query_hl=6&itool=pubmed_docsum. Retrieved 2007-04-26.
^ Ohio State University Research, March 3, 2008 Study is published in the March 2008 issue of the journal Psychoneuroendocrinology
^ Antibacterial activity of essential oils from Australian native plants.
^ Antimicrobial and antiplasmid activities of essential oils.
^ http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/cam/aromatherapy/HealthProfessional/page3 Aromatherapy and Essential Oils
^ Ballard CG, O'Brien JT, Reichelt K, Perry EK (July 2002). "Aromatherapy as a safe and effective treatment for the management of agitation in severe dementia: the results of a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial with Melissa". J Clin Psychiatry 63 (7): 553–8. PMID 12143909.
^ Holmes C, Hopkins V, Hensford C, MacLaughlin V, Wilkinson D, Rosenvinge H. (April 2002). "Lavender oil as a treatment for agitated behaviour in severe dementia: a placebo controlled study". Int J Geriatr Psychiatry 17 (4): 305–8.. doi:10.1002/gps.593. PMID 11994882.
^ "The long-term effect of a mouthrinse containing essential oils on dental plaque and gingivitis: a systematic review". Periodontol. 78 (7): 1218–28. 2007 July. PMID 17608576 : 17608576.
^ van der Watt, Gillian; Aleksandar Janca (2008). "Aromatherapy in nursing and mental health care". Contemporary Nurse 30 (1): 69 - 75. ISSN 1037-6178. http://www.atypon-link.com/EMP/doi/abs/10.5555/conu.673.30.1.69. Retrieved 30 May.
^ Murakami, Shio et al. (2005). "Aromatherapy for Outpatients with Menopausal Symptoms in Obstetrics and Gynecology". Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 11 (3): 491 - 494. doi:10.1089/acm.2005.11.491.
^ Gilligan, N.P. (2005). "The palliation of nausea in hospice and palliative care patients with essential oils of Pimpinella anisum (aniseed), Foeniculum vulgare var. dulce (sweet fennel), Anthemis nobilis (Roman chamomile) and Mentha x piperita (peppermint)". International Journal of Aromatherapy 15 (4): 163 - 167. doi:10.1016/j.ijat.2005.10.012.
^ Anderson, Lynn A.; Jeffrey B. Gross (2004). "Aromatherapy with peppermint, isopropyl alcohol, or placebo is equally effective in relieving postoperative nausea". Journal of PeriAnesthesia Nursing 19 (1): 29 - 35. doi:10.1016/j.jopan.2003.11.001.
^ Mamaril, Myrna E. et al. (2006). "Prevention and Management of Postoperative Nausea and Vomiting: A Look at Complementary Techniques". Journal of PeriAnesthesia Nursing 21 (6): 404 - 410. doi:10.1016/j.jopan.2006.09.007.
^ http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1312240 Hyperpigmented macules and streaks
^ Edwards, J.; F.E. Bienvenu (1999). "Investigations into the use of flame and the herbicide, paraquat, to control peppermint rust in north-east Victoria, Australia". Australasian Plant Pathology 28 (3): 212 - 224. doi:10.1071/AP99036.
^ Adamovic, D.S. et al.. "Variability of herbicide efficiency and their effect upon yield and quality of peppermint (Mentha X Piperital L.)". http://www.actahort.org/books/249/249_8.htm. Retrieved 6 June 2009.
^ The Lavender Cat - Cats and Essential Oil Safety
^ K. Bischoff, F. Guale (1998). "Australian tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) Oil Poisoning in three purebred cats" (^{[dead link]}–^{Scholar search}). Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 10 (108). http://www.vet-task-force.com/Abstract-tea-tree-oil.htm. Retrieved 2006-10-17.
^ Henley, D. V. (2007). "Prepubertal gynecomastia linked to lavender and tea tree oils". New England Journal of Medicine 356 (5): 479–85. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa064725. PMID 17267908. http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/abstract/356/5/479.
^ "Oils make male breasts develop". BBC News Online (London). 1 February 2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/6318043.stm. Retrieved 2007-09-09.
^ Eucalyptus oil (PIM 031)
^ Millet Y, Jouglard J, Steinmetz MD, Tognetti P, Joanny P, Arditti J. (December 1981). "Toxicity of some essential plant oils. Clinical and experimental study". Clin Toxicol. 18 (12): 1485–98. PMID 7333081.

External links

Journals

Criticism

Aromatherapy - does it work? Smell Research by Tim Jacob
Aromatherapy: Making Dollars out of Scents

v • d • e Psychotherapy

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Psychotherapeutic processes	Abreaction (Catharsis) · Association · Transference (Countertransference)

Sensory art therapy	Aromatherapy · Art therapy · Color therapy · Dance therapy · Music therapy · Play therapy · Psychodrama

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Translations: Aromatherapy

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Dansk (Danish)
n. - aromaterapi

Nederlands (Dutch)
reuktherapie

Français (French)
n. - aromathérapie

Deutsch (German)
n. - Aromatherapie

Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - αρωματοθεραπεία

Italiano (Italian)
aromaterapia

Português (Portuguese)
n. - aromaterapia (f)

Русский (Russian)
лечение при помощи запахов

Español (Spanish)
n. - aromaterapia

Svenska (Swedish)
n. - aromaterapi

中文（简体）(Chinese (Simplified))
芳香疗法

中文（繁體）(Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 芳香療法

한국어 (Korean)
n. - 향기요법

日本語 (Japanese)
n. - アロマテラピ, 匂い健康法

العربيه (Arabic)
‏(الاسم) المعالجه بالعطور والنباتات والأعشاب‏

עברית (Hebrew)
n. - ‮עיסוי בשמנים ריחניים, ארומאתרפיה‬

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