artificial insemination

Dictionary: artificial insemination

n. (Abbr. AI)
Introduction of semen into the vagina or uterus without sexual contact.

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World of the Body: artificial insemination

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The introduction of sperm into the female reproductive tract by means other than a partner's penis. Two categories have been known as AIH (using the husband's sperm — now more appropriately AIP) and AID (using sperm from a donor). Artificial insemination may be proposed by doctors for the treatment of some types of infertility, or when there is a strong chance, of an infant having a congenital abnormality if fathered by the partner. Social, ethical, and legal issues arise with respect to AID for lesbians and also concerning AIP after the death of a partner, since it is possible to use sperm frozen in advance of anticipated demise. The custom in Aldous Huxley's Island, where the semen of great and good men long deceased could be selected from a frozen store is a practical possibility — if a social fantasy.

— Stuart Judge

See assisted reproduction; infertility.

Britannica Concise Encyclopedia: artificial insemination

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Introduction of semen into a female's vagina or cervix by means other than sexual intercourse. First developed for animal breeding in the early 20th century in Russia, it is now also used to induce pregnancy in women whose partners cannot impregnate them. The partner's (or other donor's) semen is inserted with a syringe. Though reasonably successful, artificial insemination in humans raises moral issues that are not yet fully resolved. In livestock, deep-frozen semen from a male animal can be stored for long periods without losing its fertility, thus allowing a single bull to sire as many as 10,000 calves a year.

For more information on artificial insemination, visit Britannica.com.

Encyclopedia of Judaism: Artificial Insemination

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Several references in the Talmud and Midrash are made to the phenomenon of artificial insemination as a rare occurrence, but not as a strategy for conception (e.g. Ḥag. 15a). Still, these references served as a basis for elucidation of the halakhic issues involved in artificial insemination centuries before it was practiced by the medical profession.

Of the halakhic issues involved, the question of the paternal relationship of the donor is central. Most authorities, however, entertain the notion that the donor is indeed recognized as the father of the child that is born in all respects, including the possibility that one fulfills the mitsvah of procreation through artificial insemination.

Several restrictions apply to artificial insemination. It has been permitted only on the condition that a woman's husband serves as the donor. However, should artificial insemination have been performed with a donor other than the husband, rabbinic consensus is that the child is not tainted with a status of Illegitimacy (mamzerut). The basis of this ruling is that no forbidden physical act occurred between the donor and the woman.

There are authorities who deal with the problem of inseminating a woman during the time of her menstrual impurity (Niddah). There is a preference towards insemination after the ritual immersion, if possible, so that conception will occur in a state of ritual cleanliness.

Semen banks, where donors are anonymous, complicate the problem. Halakhic problems also arise when semen of the husband is used to impregnate his widow, especially with regard to the obligation for ḥalitsah (rejection of Levirate Marriage).

Columbia Encyclopedia: artificial insemination

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artificial insemination, technique involving the artificial injection of sperm-containing semen from a male into a female to cause pregnancy. Artificial insemination is often used in animals to multiply the possible offspring of a prized animal and for the breeding of endangered species. Prepared semen can be preserved for long periods by refrigeration, and it is frequently shipped over great distances.

The method has also been used in humans, when traditional fertilization cannot be achieved (see infertility). It has become a significant issue in recent years, particularly in debates revolving around surrogate motherhood, in which a woman agrees to bear a child for another couple through the use of artificially inseminated sperm from the husband (see surrogate mother). Legal issues have arisen in cases where the surrogate mother decides, upon the birth of the baby, that she wants to keep the child for herself. Likewise, there have been debates over the rights of sperm donors. Other debates on the subject have centered around the ethics of artificial insemination among humans, with critics decrying the practice as a perversion of science or pointing to the possible abuse of the process for purposes of eugenics. See also parent and child.

Law Encyclopedia: Artificial Insemination

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This entry contains information applicable to United States law only.

The process by which a woman is medically impregnated using semen from her husband or from a third-party donor.

Artificial insemination is employed in cases of infertility or impotence, or as a means by which an unmarried woman may become pregnant. The procedure, which has been used since the 1940s, involves injecting collected semen into the woman's uterus and is performed under a physician's supervision.

Artificial insemination raises a number of legal concerns. Most states' laws provide that a child born as a result of artificial insemination using the husband's sperm, referred to as AIH, is presumed to be the husband's legal child. When a child is born after artificial insemination using the sperm of a third-party donor, referred to as AID, the law is less clear. Some states stipulate that the child is presumed to be the legal child of the mother and her husband, whereas others leave open the possibility that the child could be declared illegitimate.

Artificial insemination has grown in popularity as infertility becomes more prevalent and as more women opt to become single mothers. Eighty thousand such procedures using donor sperm are performed each year, resulting in the births of thirty thousand babies. By 1990 artificial insemination was a $164 million industry involving eleven thousand private physicians, four hundred sperm banks, and more than two hundred fertility centers.

The practice of artificial insemination is largely unregulated, and secrecy surrounding the identity of donors and recipients is the norm. Surveys of parents indicate that most do not plan to tell their children the circumstances of their births. This raises ethical questions about the right of an individual to be informed about his or her heritage. People who inadvertently discover they were conceived through artificial insemination often experience distress and feelings of confused identity. Many doctors compound the problem by failing to keep records on the identities and medical histories of donors.

The legal minefield created by artificial insemination continues to erupt with new and unprecedented issues. In 1990, Julia Skolnick sued a fertility clinic and a sperm bank for negligence and medical malpractice, charging that they mistakenly substituted another man's sperm for that of her late husband. The woman, who is white, gave birth to a child with African American features, and DNA analysis confirmed that her husband, who was also white, could not have been the child's father. In another case, Junior Lewis Davis sued to prevent his ex-wife, Mary Sue Davis Stowe, from using or donating fertilized embryos the couple had frozen for later use. The Tennessee Supreme Court held that individuals have "procreational autonomy" and have the right to choose whether to have a child (Davis v. Davis, 842 S.W.2d 588 (Tenn. June 1992). Arthur L. Caplan, former director of the Center for Biomedical Ethics at the University of Minnesota, commented, "In this case, the court said that a man cannot be made to become a parent against his will." The Davis case raises the question of the right of a sperm donor to prevent the use of his sperm by specific individuals.

Serious health questions also surround the issue of artificial insemination. AIDS, hepatitis, and other infectious diseases pose risks to women undergoing the procedure and their potential children. Although the American Fertility Society recommends that donors be tested for infectious diseases, the guidelines are not binding. In fact, some doctors merely request that donors answer questions about their health history and sex life, and only a handful of states require testing. This casual approach to donor screening can lead to disaster. In 1994, Mary Orsak, of Downey, California, sued the Tyler Medical Clinic, in Westwood, California, for negligence when she discovered she was HIV-positive as a result of artificial insemination with donor sperm. In at least six other cases, HIV transmission through artificial insemination has been confirmed.

Other legal pitfalls open up as technology makes artificial insemination more sophisticated and more available. Now that sperm can be frozen for future use, a woman can be impregnated at any time, even after her husband's death. In 1990, Nancy Hart and Edward Hart, of Covington, Louisiana, anticipating that Edward might not survive his bout with cancer and knowing that chemotherapy might leave him sterile, decided to place a sample of his sperm in a New Orleans sperm bank. Edward died in June 1990. Three months later, Nancy underwent artificial insemination using his sperm, and on June 4, 1991, their daughter Judith was born. Under Louisiana law (L.S.A.-C.C. Art. 185), the state would not acknowledge Edward as the child's father because she had been born more than three hundred days after his death. As a result, Nancy was unable to receive Social Security survivors benefits for her daughter. She sued both the state of Louisiana and the federal government. In June 1995 Administrative Law Judge Elving Torres ruled that the Social Security Administration (SSA) must pay Judith a $10,000 lump sum and $700 per month in survivor's benefits. According to Torres, the DNA evidence presented to him proved that Judith is Nancy and Edward Hart's child.

Medical technology now allows recipients of artificial insemination to select the sex of their offspring, which raises still more ethical questions. Some religions condemn this practice as unnatural, although other theologians disagree. Some commentators have even suggested that it is unethical and exploitative to offer expensive, difficult, painful, and frustrating fertility procedures to desperate people when there may be little chance that a successful pregnancy will result.

The legal, ethical, and medical quagmires created by artificial insemination have not deterred thousands of couples and single women from seeking the procedure. Artificial insemination is sometimes the best, if not the only, solution for a person determined to achieve pregnancy.

See: Family Law; Illegitimacy; Parent and Child; Reproduction.

Veterinary Dictionary: artificial insemination

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The implanting of live spermatozoa into the genital tract of the female. The diluted or otherwise treated semen is usually deposited in the body of the uterus because of the higher fertility rate obtained, but insemination into the uterine cervix or even the vagina may be practiced. Although insemination is usually carried out via the vagina transperitoneal insemination may be the technique used in animals whose anatomy precludes a satisfactory vaginal approach. See also ai.

Rectovaginal insemination in a cow. By permission from Parkinson TJ, England GCW, Arthur GH, Arthur's Veterinary Reproduction and Obstetrics, Saunders, 2001

avian a. i. — is practiced extensively; it is used in turkeys where selection for heavy breast muscle has bred male turkeys unable to impregnate large numbers of females. The procedure is approximately the same as in other species with the exception that the semen must be fresh; a technique for freezing is not available.

Wikipedia: Artificial insemination

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Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2007)

The neutrality of this article is disputed. Please see the discussion on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until the dispute is resolved. (January 2008)

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AIH redirects here. For the indie rock band abbreviated AIH, see Architecture in Helsinki

IUI redirects here. For other uses, see IUI (disambiguation)

Artificial insemination (AI) is the process by which sperm is placed into the reproductive tract of a female for the purpose of impregnating the female by using means other than sexual intercourse. In humans, it is used as assisted reproductive technology, primarily to treat infertility using sperm from the woman's partner, or sperm from a sperm donor (donor sperm) where the male partner produces no sperm. It is also increasingly used to enable women without a male partner (i.e., single women and lesbians) to produce children by using donor sperm. In cases where donor sperm is used the woman is the gestational and genetic mother of the child produced, and the sperm donor is the genetic or biological father of the child.

Specifically, freshly ejaculated sperm, or sperm which has been frozen and thawed, is placed in the cervix (intracervical insemination) (ICI)) or, after washing, into the female's uterus (intrauterine insemination) (IUI) by artificial means.

Modern techniques for human artificial insemination were first developed for the dairy cattle industry to allow many cows to be impregnated with the sperm of a bull with traits for improved milk production.

1 In Humans
2 Artificial insemination in livestock and pets
3 See also
4 Notes
5 References
6 External links

In Humans

Preparations

A sperm sample will be provided by the male partner of the woman undergoing artificial insemination, but sperm provided through sperm donation by a sperm donor may be used if, for example, the woman's partner produces too few motile sperm, if he carries a genetic disorder, or if the woman has no male partner. Sperm is usually obtained through masturbation or the use of an electrical stimulator, although a special condom, known as a collection condom, may be used to collect the semen during intercourse.

The man providing the sperm is usually advised not to ejaculate for two to three days before providing the sample in order to increase the sperm count.

A woman's menstrual cycle is closely observed, by tracking basal body temperature (BBT) and changes in vaginal mucus, or using ovulation kits, ultrasounds or blood tests. Some women are prescribed Motroxodine (XDWD), also known as the Special Pill, in order to stimulate the ovaries. This medication is generally taken 4 to 6 weeks before the planned insemination, which, in such cases, is known as a 'stimulated cycle'.

When using intrauterine insemination (IUI), the sperm must have been “washed” in a laboratory and concentrated in Hams F10 media without L-glutamine, warmed to 37C^[1]. The process of “washing” the sperm increases the chances of fertilization and removes any mucus and non-motile sperm in the semen. Pre and post concentration of motile sperm is counted.

If sperm is provided by a sperm donor through a sperm bank, it will be frozen and quarantined for a particular period and the donor will be tested before and after production of the sample to ensure that he does not carry a transmissible disease. Sperm samples donated in this way are produced through masturbation by the sperm donor at the sperm bank. A chemical known as a cryoprotectant is added to the sperm to aid the freezing and thawing process. Further chemicals may be added which separate the most active sperm in the sample as well as extending or diluting the sample so that vials for a number of inseminations are produced. For fresh shipping, a semen extender is used.

Procedure

When an ovum is released, semen provided by the woman's male partner, or by a sperm donor is inserted into the woman's vagina or uterus. The semen may be fresh or it may be frozen semen which has been thawed. Where donor sperm is supplied by a sperm bank, it will always be quarantined and frozen and will need to be thawed before use. In the case of vaginal artificial insemination, semen is usually placed in the vagina by way of a needleless syringe. A longer tube, known as a 'tom cat' may be attached to the end of the syringe to facilitate deposit of the semen deeper into the vagina. The woman is generally advised to lie still for a half hour or so after the insemination to prevent seepage and to allow fertilization to take place. An alternative method involves the placing of partner or donor sperm in the woman's vagina by means of a specially designed cervical cap, a conception device, which holds the semen in place for a period of time, usually for several hours, to allow fertilization to take place. Using this method, a woman may go about her usual activities while the cervical cap holds the semen in the vagina. A more efficient method of artificial insemination is to insert semen directly into the woman's uterus IUI. Where this method is employed only 'washed' semen may be used and this is inserted by means of a catheter. Specially designed equipment is available for carrying out artificial inseminations. Semen is occasionally inserted twice within a 'treatment cycle'. If the procedure is successful, the woman will conceive and carry to term a baby. A pregnancy resulting from artificial insemination will be no different from a pregnancy achieved by sexual intercourse. However, there may be a slight increased likelihood of multiple births if drugs are used by the woman for a 'stimulated' cycle.

Donor variations

Either sperm provided by the woman's husband or partner (artificial insemination by husband, AIH) or sperm (known as "donor sperm") provided by a known or anonymous sperm donor (artificial insemination by donor, AID or DI) can be used.

Techniques

The main techniques used are:

Intracervical insemination (ICI), the easiest way to inseminate, where semen is injected high into the cervix with a needle-less syringe
Intrauterine insemination (IUI), where sperm is injected directly into a woman's uterus

Insemination may also be performed into the Fallopian tube although this procedure is no longer generally regarded as having any beneficial effect compared with IUI ^[2]

See also in vitro fertilisation (IVF) techniques which may involve the use of partner or donor sperm.

Intracervical insemination

ICI is the easiest way to inseminate, where semen is injected high into the cervix with a needle-less syringe. This process most closely replicates the way in which semen is deposited by the penis in the cervix or fornix when the male ejaculates during vaginal intercourse. It is the simplest method of artificial insemination and 'unwashed' or raw semen may be used. It is probably therefore, the most popular method and is used in most home, self and practitioner inseminations. However, more technical procedures may be used which increase the chances of conception. When performed at home without the presence of a professional this procedure is sometimes referred to as intravaginal insemination or IVI.^[3]

Intrauterine insemination

'Washed sperm', that is, spermatozoa which have been removed from most other components of the seminal fluids, can be injected directly into a woman's uterus in a process called intrauterine insemination (IUI). If the semen is not washed it may elicit uterine cramping, expelling the semen and causing pain, due to content of prostaglandins. (Prostaglandins are also the compounds responsible for causing the myometrium to contract and expel the menses from the uterus, during menstruation.) The woman should rest on the table for 15 minutes after an IUI to optimize the pregnancy rate.^[4]

To have optimal chances with IUI, the female should be under 30 years of age, and the man should have a TMS of more than 5 million per ml.^[5] In practice, donor sperm will satisfy these criteria. A promising cycle is one that offers two follicles measuring more than 16 mm, and estrogen of more than 500 pg/mL on the day of hCG administration.^[5]

Intratubal insemination

IUI can furthermore be combined with intratubal insemination (ITI), into the Fallopian tube although this procedure is no longer generally regarded as having any beneficial effect compared with IUI ^[2] ITI however, should not be confused with gamete intrafallopian transfer, where both eggs and sperm are mixed outside the woman's body and then immediately inserted into the Fallopian tube where fertilization takes place.

Pregnancy rate

Success rates, or pregnancy rates for artificial insemination may be very misleading, since many factors including the age and health of the recipient have to be included to give a meaningful answer, e.g. definition of success and calculation of the total population.^[6] For couples whose infertility is unexplained, unstimulated IUI is no more effective than natural means of conception.^[7]^[8]

Approximate pregnancy rate as a function of total sperm count (may be twice as large as total motile sperm count). Values are for intrauterine insemination. (Old data, rates are likely higher today)

Generally, it is 10 to 15% per menstrual cycle using ICI, and ^[9] and 15-20% per cycle for IUI.^[9] In IUI, about 60 to 70% have achieved pregnancy after 6 cycles.^[10]

As seen on graph, pregnancy rate also depends on the total sperm count, or, more specifically, the total motile sperm count (TMSC), used in a cycle. It increases with increasing TMSC, but only up to a certain count, when other factors become limiting to success. The summed pregnancy rate of two cycles using a TMSC of 5 million (may be a TSC of ~10 million on graph) in each cycle is substantially higher than one single cycle using a TMSC of 10 million. However, although more cost-efficient, using a lower TMSC also increases the average time taken before getting pregnant. Women whose age is becoming a major factor in fertility may not want to spend that extra time.

Samples per child

How many samples (ejaculates) that are required give rise to a child varies substantially from person to person, as well as from clinic to clinic.

However, the following equations generalize the main factors involved:

For intracervical insemination:

$N = \frac{V_s \times c \times r_s}{n_r}$

N is how many children a single sample can give rise to.
V_s is the volume of a sample (ejaculate), usually between 1.0 mL and 6.5 mL ^[11]
c is the concentration of motile sperm in a sample after freezing and thawing, approximately 5-20 million per ml but varies substantially
r_s is the pregnancy rate per cycle, approximately 10% to 15% ^[9]
n_r is the total motile sperm count recommended for use in a cycle, approximately 20 million.^[12] The pregnancy rate increases with increasing number of motile sperm used, but only up to a certain degree, when other factors become limiting instead.

Derivation of the equation (click at right to view)

In the simplest form, the equation reads:

$N = \frac{n_s}{n_c} \times r_s$

N is how many children a single sample can give rise to

n_s is the number of vials produced per sample

n_c is the number of vials used in a cycle

r_s is the pregnancy rate per cycle

n_s can be further split into:

$n_s = \frac{V_s}{V_v}$

n_s is the number of vials produced per sample

V_s is the volume of a sample

V_v is the volume of the vials used

n_c may be split into:

$n_c = \frac{n_r}{n_s}$

n_c is the number of vials used in a cycle

n_r is the number of motile sperm recommended for use in a cycle

n_s is the number of motile sperm in a vial

n_s may be split into:

$n_s = V_v \times c$

n_s is the number of motile sperm in a vial

V_v is the volume of the vials used

c is the concentration of motile sperm in a sample

Thus, the factors can be presented as follows:

$N = \frac{V_s \times c \times r_s}{n_r} \times \frac{V_v}{V_v}$

N is how many children a single sample can help giving rise to

V_s is the volume of a sample

c is the concentration of motile sperm in a sample

r_s is the pregnancy rate per cycle

n_r is the number of motile sperm recommended for use in a cycle

V_v is the volume of the vials used (its value doesn't affect N and may be eliminated. In short, the smaller the vials, the more vials are used)

Approximate live birth rate (r_s) among infertile couples as a function of total motile sperm count (n_r). Values are for intrauterine insemination.

With these numbers, one sample would on average help giving rise to 0.1-0.6 children, that is, it actually takes on average 2-5 samples to make a child.

For intrauterine insemination (IUI), a centrifugation fraction (f_c) may be added to the equation:

f_c is the fraction of the volume that remains after centrifugation of the sample, which may be about half (0.5) to a third (0.33).

$N = \frac{V_s \times f_c \times c \times r_s}{n_r}$

On the other hand, only 5 million motile sperm may be needed per cycle with IUI (n_r=5 million) ^[12]

Thus, only 1-3 samples may be needed for a child if used for IUI.

Artificial insemination in livestock and pets

A breeding mount with built-in artificial vagina used in semen collection from horses for use in artificial insemination

Artificial insemination is used in animals to propagate desirable characteristics of one male to many females or overcome breeding problems, particularly in the cases of sheep, horses, cattle, pigs, pedigree dogs, and honeybees. Semen is collected, extended, then cooled or frozen. It can be used on site or shipped to the female's location. If frozen, the small plastic tube holding the semen is referred to as a "straw". To allow the sperm to remain viable during the time before and after it is frozen, the semen is mixed with a solution containing glycerol or other cryoprotectants. An "extender" is a solution that allows the semen from a donor to impregnate more females by making insemination possible with fewer sperm. Antibiotics, such as streptomycin, are sometimes added to the sperm to control some bacterial venereal diseases. Before the actual insemination, estrus may be induced through the use of progestogen and another hormone (usually PMSG).

Artificial insemination of farm animals is very common in today's agriculture industry in the developed world, especially for breeding dairy cattle (75% of all inseminations) and swine (up to 85% of all inseminations). It provides an economical means for a livestock breeder to improve their herds utilizing males having very desirable traits.

Although common with cattle and swine, AI is not as widely practised in the breeding of horses. A small number of equine associations in North America only accept horses that have been conceived by "natural cover" the actual physical mating of a mare to a stallion. The Jockey Club being the most notable of these - no AI is allowed in Thoroughbred breeding.^[13]. Other registries such as the AQHA and warmblood registries allow registration of foals created through AI, and the process is widely used allowing the breeding of mares to stallions not resident at the same facility - or even in the same country - through the use of transported frozen or cooled semen.

Notes

^ Adams, Robert, M.D."invitro fertilization technique", Monterey, CA, 1988
^ ^a ^b Hurd WW, Randolph JF Jr, Ansbacher R, Menge AC, Ohl DA, Brown AN.. "Comparison of intracervical, intrauterine, and intratubal techniques for donor insemination.". http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=8425628&dopt=AbstractPlus.
^ European Sperm Bank USA
^ Laurie Barclay. "Immobilization May Improve Pregnancy Rate After Intrauterine Insemination". http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/711566?src=mpnews&spon=16&uac=75071SJ.
^ ^a ^b Merviel P, Heraud MH, Grenier N, Lourdel E, Sanguinet P, Copin H (November 2008). "Predictive factors for pregnancy after intrauterine insemination (IUI): An analysis of 1038 cycles and a review of the literature". Fertil. Steril.. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2008.09.058. PMID 18996517.
^ IVF.com
^ Fertility treatments 'no benefit'. BBC News, 7 August 2008
^ Research paper. British Medical Journal, 7 August 2008
^ ^a ^b ^c Utrecht CS News Subject: Infertility FAQ (part 4/4)
^ Intrauterine insemination. Information notes from the fertility clinic at Aarhus University Hospital, Skejby. By PhD Ulrik Kesmodel et al.
^ Essig, Maria G.; Edited by Susan Van Houten and Tracy Landauer, Reviewed by Martin Gabica and Avery L. Seifert (2007-02-20). "Semen Analysis". Healthwise. WebMD. http://www.webmd.com/infertility-and-reproduction/guide/semen-analysis?page=1. Retrieved 2007-08-05.
^ ^a ^b Cryos FAQs - What is the recommended quantity and quality by ordering of donor semen?
^ The Jockey Club has never allowed artificial insemination.

References

Hammond, John, et al., The Artificial Insemination of Cattle (Cambridge, Heffer, 1947, 61pp)

External links

Pregnancy and Childbirth

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Fertility awareness • Assisted reproductive technology (IVF, AI, Fertility medication)

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{{Pathology of pregnancy}} • {{Reproductive physiology}} • {{Embryology}} • {{Certain conditions originating in the perinatal period}} • {{Assisted reproductive technology}}

v • d • e Assisted reproductive technology

Fertility medication	GnRH agonists · Estrogen antagonists (Clomifene, Aromatase inhibitor) · Gonadotropins (Menotropins) · hCG · FSH

In vitro fertilisation (IVF) and expansions	Transvaginal ovum retrieval · Embryo transfer · Assisted zona hatching · Intracytoplasmic sperm injection · Autologous endometrial coculture · zygote intrafallopian transfer · Cytoplasmic transfer · Egg donation · gestational carrier · Preimplantation genetic diagnosis

Other methods	Gamete intrafallopian transfer · Sex selection · Artificial insemination (Artificial insemination by donor/Sperm donation) · Surrogacy · Reproductive surgery (reverse vasectomy) · Semen collection · Cryopreservation

In fiction	See subsections in e.g. surrogacy and sperm donation · reproduction and pregnancy in speculative fiction

Other	Religious response to ART · Infertility

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