The Austro-Prussian War (also called the Seven Weeks War, the Unification War[1], or the German
Civil War) was a war fought in 1866 between the
Austrian Empire and its German allies and the Kingdom of Prussia with its German allies and Italy, that resulted in Prussian dominance over the German states. In Germany and Austria
it is called the Deutscher Krieg (German war), Österreichisch-preussischer Krieg (Austro-Prussian War) or
Bruderkrieg (war of brothers). In the Italian unification process, this is
called the Third Independence War.
Aside from the major impact of birthing the modern unified nation state and
nineteenth-century world power, the war severed the ties the
British nobility had with government in Germany due to Prussia's annexation of the
Kingdom of Hanover which had been ruled by the same royal family (the House of Hanover) that ruled Great Britain since 1714 (although after 1837 the two states were ruled by
different members of the family due to differing succession laws). This, combined
with the formation of the German Empire a few years later arguably strained
Anglo-German relations to a point from which they never fully recovered in
decades leading up to World War I.
Causes
For centuries, the Holy Roman Emperors who mostly came from the Habsburg family had nominally ruled all of 'Germany' - the Holy
Roman Empire. In fact, however, the territory of Central Europe was split into a few large states and hundreds of tiny
entities (spiritual and temporal principalities, free cities), each jealously maintaining its de
facto sovereignty and independence with the assistance of outside powers, particularly France. Austria was traditionally considered the leader of the German states, but Prussia was becoming
increasingly powerful and by the late 18th century was ranked as one of the great powers of
Europe. After the Napoleonic Wars had ended in 1815, the
German states were reorganized in a loose confederation: the
German Confederation, under Austrian leadership.
In the meantime, partly in reaction to the triumphant French nationalism of Napoleon, and partly as an organic feeling of
commonality glorified during the romantic era, German nationalism became a potent force
during this period. The ultimate aim of most German nationalists was the union of all Germans into one state. Two different ideas
of national unification eventually came to the fore. One was a Grossdeutschland
that would include all German-speaking lands, including and dominated by the multi-national empire of Austria; the other
(preferred by Prussia) was a Kleindeutschland that would exclude even the
german parts of Austria and be dominated by Prussia.
There are many different interpretations of Bismarck's behavior prior to the
Austrian-Prussian war, which concentrate mainly on whether the 'Iron chancellor' had a master plan that resulted in this war, the
North German confederation, and eventually the unification of Germany.
Bismarck maintained that he orchestrated the conflict in order to bring about the North German Confederation, the
Franco-Prussian War and the eventual unification of Germany. However, historians such as A.J.P
Taylor dispute this interpretation and believe that Bismarck did not have a master plan, but rather was an opportunist who
took advantage of the favourable situations that presented themselves. Taylor thinks Bismarck manipulated events into the most
beneficial solution possible for Prussia. Possible evidence can be found in Bismarck's orchestration of the Austrian alliance
during the Second War of Schleswig against Denmark, which can be seen as his
diplomatic ‘masterstroke.’ Taylor also believes that the alliance was a "test for Austria rather than a trap", and that the goal
was not war with Austria, contradicting what Bismarck later gave in his memoirs as the main reason for establishing the alliance.
It was in Prussia’s best interests to gain an alliance with Austria so that the combined allied force could easily defeat Denmark
and as a result settle the issue of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein.
The alliance can therefore be regarded as an aid to Prussian expansion, rather than a provocation of war against Austria. Many
historians believe that Bismarck was simply a Prussian expansionist, rather than a German
nationalist who sought the unification of Germany. It was later at the convention of Gastein that the Austrian alliance was set
up to lure Austria into war.
Bismarck had also set up an alliance with Italy committing them to war if Prussia went to war within three months. This treaty
virtually guaranteed a commitment on Bismarck's side to muster up a war with Austria within these 3 months in order to ensure
Austria's full strength would not be attacking Prussia.
The timing of declaration was perfect, because all other European powers were bound by alliances that forbade them from
entering, or had domestic problems that had priority. Britain had no stake economically or politically in a potential war between
Prussia and Austria. Russia was unlikely to enter on the side of Austria due to ill will following their alliance during the
Crimean War, and Prussia had stood by Russia during the Polish revolts where as Austria did not. France was also unlikely to enter on the side of
Austria because Bismarck and Napoleon III met in Biarritz and allegedly discussed whether or not France would intervene in a
potential Austro-Prussian war. Nobody knows what was discussed, but many historians think Bismarck was guaranteed French
neutrality in the event of a war. Finally, Italy was already in an alliance with Prussia, which meant that Austria would be
fighting their combined power with no allies of their own. Bismarck was aware of his numerical superiority, but still “he was not
prepared to advise it immediately even though he gave a favourable account of the international situation."
Military factors
Bismarck may well have been encouraged to go to war by the advantages which the Prussian army enjoyed over that of the
Austrian Empire. To oppose this view, A.J.P Taylor believes that Bismarck was reluctant to go to war as it "deprived him of
control and left the decisions to the generals whose ability he distrusted". The two most important personalities within the
Prussian army were War Minister Albrecht Graf von Roon and Chief of the General
Staff Helmuth Graf von Moltke. The truth may be more complicated than
simply that Bismarck, who famously said "Politics is the art of the possible," initially sought war with Austria, or that he was
initially against the idea of going to war with Austria.
Rival military systems
In 1862, von Roon had implemented several army reforms (and to do so had been instrumental in ensuring that Bismarck was
appointed Chancellor). Roon ensured that all Prussian citizens were liable to conscription. Before this date, the size of the
army had been fixed by earlier laws which had not taken population growth into account, making conscription inequable and
unpopular for this reason. While some Prussian men remained in the army or the reserves until they were forty years old, about
one in three (or even more in some regions where the population had expanded greatly as a result of industrialisation) escaped
with only token service in the Landwehr, a loosely organised "Home Guard".
Universal conscription, combined with an increase in the term of active service from two years to three years, dramatically
increased the size of the army. It also provided Prussia with a reserve army equal in size to that which Moltke actually deployed
against Austria. Had France under Napoleon III attempted to intervene in force on Austria's side, the Prussians could have faced
him with equal or superior numbers of troops.
The three-year term of active service, during which troops were continually trained and drilled, also ensured a better
standard of training and discipline than that of the Austrian army, particularly in the infantry. Some Austrian commanders still
dismissed infantry conscripts to their homes on permanent leave soon after their induction into the army, retaining a cadre of
long-term soldiers for formal parades and routine duties. The conscripts sent on leave had to be trained almost from scratch when
they were recalled to their units on the outbreak of war. The Austrian cavalry and artillery however were as well-trained as
their Prussian counterparts. Austria possessed two incomparable divisions of heavy cavalry, but weapons and tactics had advanced
since the Napoleonic Wars and heavy cavalry were no longer a decisive arm on the battlefield.
Speed of mobilisation
An important difference in the Prussian and Austrian military systems was that the Prussian army was locally based, organised
as Kreise (lit. circles), each containing a Korps headquarters and its component units. The vast majority of reservists
lived within a few hours' journey from their korps' depots, and mobilisation to full strength would take very little time.
By contrast, the Austrians deliberately ensured that units were stationed far from the areas from which their soldiers were
recruited - to prevent army units taking part in separatist revolts. Conscripts on leave or reservists recalled to their units as
a result of mobilisation faced a journey which might take weeks before they could report for duty. The Prussian army was
therefore able to mobilise far more quickly than the Austrian army.
Speed of concentration
The railway system of Prussia was more extensively developed than that within Austria. Railways made it possible to supply
larger numbers of troops than had previously been possible, and also allowed the rapid movement of troops within friendly
territory. The better Prussian rail network therefore allowed the Prussian army to concentrate more rapidly than the Austrians.
Von Moltke, reviewing his plans to von Roon stated, "We have the inestimable advantage of being able to carry our Field Army
of 285,000 men over five railway lines and of virtually concentrating them in twenty-five days ... Austria has only one railway
line and it will take her forty-five days to assemble 200,000 men". Von Moltke had also said earlier, "Nothing could be
more welcome to us than to have now the war that we must have".
The Austrian army under Benedek in Bohemia (the present-day Czech Republic) might
previously have been expected to enjoy the advantage of the "central position", being able to concentrate on successive attacking
armies strung out along the frontier. The Prussian ability to concentrate faster nullified this advantage. By the time the
Austrians were fully assembled, they would be unable to concentrate against any one Prussian army without having the other two
instantly attack their flank and rear, threatening their lines of communication.
Armaments and tactics
Finally, the Prussian infantry were equipped with the Dreyse needle gun, a breech-loading
rifle capable of far more rapid fire than the muzzle-loading rifles with which the Austrians were equipped. In the
Franco-Austrian War of 1859, French troops had taken advantage of the
fact that the rifles of the time fired high if sighted for long range. By rapidly closing the range, French troops could come to
close quarters without sustaining too many casualties from the Austrian infantry. In the aftermath of this war, the Austrians had
adopted the same methods, which they termed the "Stosstaktik". Although they had some warnings of the German weapon, they
ignored these and retained the crude "Stosstaktik" as their main method.
In one respect, the Austrian army had superior equipment in that their artillery consisted of breech-loading rifled guns,
while the Prussian army retained many muzzle-loading smoothbore cannon. New Krupp breech-loading
guns were only slowly being introduced. In the event, the other shortcomings of the Austrian army were to prevent their artillery
from being decisive.
Economic factors
In 1866 the Prussian economy was rapidly growing, partly as a result of the Zollverein,
and this gave her an advantage in the war. It enabled Prussia to supply her armies with breech-loading rifles, and later with new
Krupp breach loading artillery. In contrast, the Austrian economy was suffering after the 1848 revolutions in Hungary and the Second Italian War of Independence. Austria only had one bank, the Creditanstalt, and the nation was heavily in debt. Many historians, including Andrina Stiles believe that Prussia's economic success had an impact on the outbreak of war. The conflict
between Austria and Prussia for mastery in Germany had an important economic dimension, suggesting that conflict between Austria
and Prussia on the battlefield was related to their long term struggle for economic supremacy.[citation needed]
Political and dynastic factors
The most important cause for war apart from Bismarck was the Prussian king. The King had decided on war reluctantly.
A.J.P Taylor said “William 1st, not German nationalists made the war of 1866 possible”.
It wasn’t Bismarck who was the sole cause for the war 1866 as the king made the final decision and made the war possible.
[citation needed]
Alliances
Most of the German states sided with Austria against Prussia, even though Austria had declared war. Those that sided with
Austria included the Kingdoms of Saxony, Bavaria, Württemberg, and Hanover. Southern states such as, Baden, Hesse-Kassel, Hesse-Darmstadt, and Nassau also joined with Austria.
Some of the northern German states joined Prussia, in particular Oldenburg,
Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Strelitz, and Brunswick. The
Kingdom of Italy participated in the war with Prussia, because Austria
still held the territory of Venetia wanted by Italy to complete the process of
Italian Unification. In return for Italian aid against Austria, Bismarck agreed not
to make a separate peace until Italy had obtained Venetia.
Notably, the other foreign powers abstained from this war. French Emperor
Napoleon III, who expected a Prussian defeat, chose to remain out of the war to
strengthen his negotiating position for territory along the Rhine, while the Russian Empire still bore a grudge against Austria from the Crimean
War.
Course of the war
The first major war between two continental powers in many years, this war used many of the same technologies as the
American Civil War, including railroads to
concentrate troops during mobilization and telegraphs to enhance long distance communication.
The Prussian Army used von Dreyse's breech-loading needle-gun, that could be rapidly loaded while the soldier was seeking cover on the ground, whereas the
Austrian muzzle-loading rifles could only be loaded slowly, and generally from a standing position.
The main campaign of the war occurred in Bohemia. Prussian Chief of the General Staff
Helmuth von Moltke had planned meticulously for the war. He rapidly
mobilized the Prussian army and advanced across the border into Saxony and Bohemia, where the Austrian army was concentrating for
an invasion of Silesia. There, the Prussian armies led nominally by King Wilhelm converged, and the two sides met at the Battle of Königgrätz (Sadová) on July 3. The Prussian Elbe Army
advanced on the Austrian left wing, and the First Army on the centre, prematurely; they risked being counter-flanked on the left.
Victory therefore depended on the timely arrival of the Second Army on the left wing. This was achieved through the brilliant
staffwork of its Chief of Staff, Leonhard Graf von Blumenthal. Superior
Prussian organization and élan decided the battle against Austrian numerical superiority, and the victory was near total, with
Austrian battle deaths nearly seven times the Prussian figure. Austria rapidly sought peace after this battle.
Except for Saxony, the other German states allied to Austria played little role in the main campaign. Hanover's army defeated
Prussia at the Second Battle of Langensalza on June 27, but within a few days they were forced to surrender by superior numbers. Prussian armies fought against
Bavaria on the Main River, reaching Nuremberg and
Frankfurt. The Bavarian fortress of Würzburg was shelled by
Prussian artillery, but the garrison defended its position until armistice day.
The Austrians were more successful in their war with Italy, defeating the Italians on land at the Battle of Custoza (June 24) and on sea at the Battle of Lissa (July 20). Garibaldi's "Hunters of the Alps" defeated the Austrians
at the Battle of Bezzecca, on 21 July, conquered the
lower part of Trentino, and moved towards Trento.
Prussian peace with Austria–Hungary forced the Italian government to seek an armistice with Austria, on 12 August. According to Treaty of Vienna, signed on
October 12, Austria ceded Venetia to France, which
in turn ceded it to Italy (for details of operations in Italy, see Third
Italian War of Independence).
Aftermath and consequences
Aftermath of the Austro-Prussian War. Prussia (dark blue) and its allies (blue) against Austria (red) and its allies (pink).
Neutral members of the German Confederation are in green, Prussia’s territorial gains after the war are in light blue
In order to forestall intervention by France or Russia, Bismarck pushed King William I to make peace with the Austrians rapidly, rather than continue the war in hopes of
further gains. The Austrians accepted mediation from France's Napoleon III. The
Peace of Prague on August 23, 1866 resulted in the dissolution of the German Confederation,
Prussian annexation of many of Austria’s former allies, and the permanent exclusion of Austria from German affairs. This left
Prussia free to form the North German Confederation the next year,
incorporating all the German states north of the Main River. Prussia chose not to
seek Austrian territory for itself, and this made it possible for Prussia and Austria to ally in the future, since Austria was
threatened more by Italian and Pan-Slavic irredentism than by Prussia. The war left Prussia
dominant in Germany, and German nationalism would compel the remaining independent states to ally with Prussia in the
Franco-Prussian War in 1870, and then to accede to the
crowning of King Wilhelm as German Emperor. United Germany would become one of the most
powerful of the European countries.
For the defeated parties
In addition to war reparations, the following territorial changes took place:
- Austria – Surrendered the province of Venetia to Italy and lost all official
influence over member states of the former German Confederation. Austria’s defeat was a telling blow to Habsburg rule; the Empire
was transformed via the Ausgleich to the dual monarchy of
Austria-Hungary in the following year.
- Schleswig and Holstein – Became the Prussian Province of
Schleswig-Holstein
- Hanover – Annexed by Prussia, became the Province of Hanover
- Hesse-Darmstadt – Surrendered some of its northern territory (the Hessian Hinterland) to Prussia. The northern half of the
remaining land (Upper Hesse) joined the North German Confederation
- Nassau, Hesse-Kassel, Frankfurt – Annexed by Prussia. Combined with the territory surrendered by Hesse-Darmstadt to form the
new Province of Hesse-Nassau
- Saxony, Saxe-Meiningen, Reuss-Greiz, Schaumburg-Lippe – Spared from annexation but joined the North German Confederation in the following year
For the neutral parties
The war meant the end of the German Confederation. Those states who remained neutral during the conflict took different
actions after the Prague treaty:
- Liechtenstein – Became an independent state and declared permanent neutrality, while maintaining close political ties with
Austria. This neutrality was respected during both World Wars.
- Limburg and Luxembourg – The Treaty of London in 1867 declared both of these states to be part of the Kingdom of the
Netherlands. Limburg became the Dutch province of Limburg. Luxembourg was
guaranteed independence and neutrality from its three surrounding neighbors (Belgium, France and Prussia) but it rejoined the
German customs union, the Zollverein, and remained a member until its dissolution in
1919.
- Reuss-Schleiz, Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt – Joined the North German Confederation
Notes
See also
External links
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