| Balkan Wars |
Boundaries on the Balkans after the First and the Second Balkan War |
|
|
| Combatants |
 Ottoman Empire |
Balkan League:
 Bulgaria
 Greece
 Serbia
 Montenegro |
| Commanders |
| Ottoman Empire: Nizam Paşa,
Zeki Paşa, Esat Paşa, Abdullah
Paşa, Ali Rıza Paşa |
Bulgaria: Vladimir Vazov,
Vasil Kutinchev, Nikola Ivanov, Radko
Dimitriev
Greece:Crown Prince Constantine, Panagiotis Danglis, Pavlos Kountouriotis
Serbia:Radomir Putnik, Petar Bojović,
Stepa Stepanović, Živojin Mišić
Montenegro: King Nicholas I, Prince Danilo Petrović, Mitar Martinović, Janko
Vukotić |
Distribution of ethnic groups in the Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor in 1923, Historical Atlas by William R. Shepherd, New York
(The map does not reflect the results of the 1923 population transfer between Greece and Turkey)
Distribution of ethnic groups in the Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor in 1922, Racial Map Of Europe by Hammond & Co.
The Balkan Wars were two wars in South-eastern Europe in 1912–1913 in the course of which the Balkan League (Bulgaria, Montenegro,
Greece, and Serbia) first conquered
Ottoman-held Macedonia, Albania and most of Thrace and then fell out over the division of the
spoils.
Background
- See also: Rise of
nationalism under the Ottoman Empire
The background to the wars lies in the incomplete emergence of nation-states on the fringes of the Ottoman Empire during the
19th century. Serbians had gained substantial territory during the Russo-Turkish
War, 1877–1878, while Greece acquired Thessaly in 1881 (although it lost a small area to
the Ottoman Empire in 1897) and Bulgaria (an autonomous principality since 1878)
incorporated the formerly distinct province of Eastern Rumelia (1885). All three as well
as Montenegro sought additional territories within the large Ottoman-ruled region known as Roumelia, comprising Eastern Roumelia,
Albania, Macedonia, and Thrace (see map).
Policies of the Great Powers
Throughout the 19th Century, the Great Powers had different aims over the "Eastern
Question", the integrity of the Ottoman Empire. Russia wished for access to the "warm waters" of the Mediterranean and followed a pan-Slavic foreign policy,
supporting Bulgaria and Serbia. Britain wished to deny Russia access to the "warm waters" and supported the integrity of the
Ottoman Empire, though it also supported a limited expansion of Greece as a backup plan in case integrity of the empire was no
longer possible. France wished to strengthen her position in the region, especially in the Levant. Austria-Hungary wished for a continuation of the existence of the Ottoman Empire, since both were
multinational entities ruled by a small elite and thus the collapse of the one would affect the other as well. Also, in the eyes
of the Habsburg (or Hapsburg) empire, with its large Serbian and Croatian populations,
the strengthening of Serbia was highly undesirable. While it has been argued that Italy from that time already wished to recreate
the Roman empire, her main aim at the time seems to have been primarily the denial of
access to the Adriatic Sea of another major sea power. Germany in turn, under the
"Drang nach Osten" policy, aspired to turn the empire into its own de-facto colony, and
thus supported its integrity.
The Balkan countries themselves (except Serbia) sent armed bands inside the Empire (in Macedonia and Thrace) in the late 19th
and early 20th centuries, to protect their own nationals and terrorize those of other nationalities. Low intensity warfare had
broken out inside Macedonia between Greek and Bulgarian bands and the Ottoman army after 1904, the so-called Macedonian Struggle. After the Young Turk revolution
of July 1908, the situation changed somewhat drastically.
The Young Turk revolution
-
It is no surprise that the "Young Turk" revolution occurred in the troubled
European provinces of the Empire. There the threat to its integrity was the most pronounced, and the need for reforms was most
evident. When the revolt broke out, it was supported by intellectuals, the army, and almost all the ethnic minorities of the
Empire, and forced Sultan Abdul Hamid II to readopt the long defunct Ottoman constitution
of 1877, ushering the so-called Second Constitutional Era.
Hopes were raised among the Balkan ethnicities of reforms and autonomy, and elections were held to form a representative,
multi-ethnic, Ottoman parliament. However, following the Sultan's attempted
countercoup, the liberal element of the Young Turks was sidelined and the nationalist element became dominant.
At the same time, in October 1908, Austria-Hungary seized the opportunity of the Ottoman political upheaval to annex the de
jure Ottoman province of Bosnia-Herzegovina, which it had occupied since 1878
(see Bosnian Crisis), and Bulgaria declared itself a fully independent kingdom.
The Greeks of the autonomous Cretan state proclaimed unification with Greece, though the
opposition of the Great Powers prevented the latter action from taking practical effect.
Reaction in the Balkan States
Frustrated in the north by Austria-Hungary's incorporation of Bosnia with its 975,000 Orthodox Serbs (and many more Serbs and Serb-sympathizers of other faiths), and forced (March 1909) to accept the
annexation and restrain anti-Habsburg agitation among Serbian nationalist groups, the Serbian government looked to formerly Serb
territories in the south, notably "Old Serbia" (the Sanjak of Novi Pazar and the
province of Kosovo).[citation needed]
On August 28, 1909, a group of demonstrating Greek officers
(Stratiotikos Syndesmos) urging constitutional revision, removal of the royal family from the leadership of the armed
forces and a more nationalist foreign policy secured the appointment of a more sympathetic government which they hoped would
resolve the Cretan issue in Greece's favour and reverse the defeat of 1897.
Bulgaria, which had secured Ottoman recognition of her independence in April 1909 and enjoyed the friendship of Russia, also
looked to districts of Ottoman Thrace and Macedonia populated mainly by Bulgarians. In March
1910, an Albanian insurrection broke out in Kosovo which was covertly supported by the young Turks. In August 1910 Montenegro
followed Bulgaria's precedent by becoming a kingdom.
The Balkan League
Bulgarian forces waiting to commence their assault on Adrinople
- See also: Italo-Turkish War
Following Italy's victory in the Italo-Turkish War of 1911-1912 the Young Turks
fell from power after a coup. The Balkan countries saw this as an opportunity to attack and fulfill their desires of
expansion.
Initially under the encouragement of Russian agents, a series of agreements were concluded between Serbia and Bulgaria in
March 1912. Military victory against the Ottoman empire was not possible while it could bring reinforcements from Asia. The
condition of the Ottoman railways of the time were primitive, thus most reinforcement would come by sea through the Aegean.
Greece was the only Balkan country with a navy powerful enough to deny use of the Aegean to the Turks. Thus a treaty was signed
between Greece and Serbia in May 1912. Montenegro subsequently concluded agreements between Serbia and Bulgaria respectively in
October 1912. The alliance formed by the agreements became known as the Balkan League,
whose existence was undesirable by all the Great powers. Furthermore the league was loose at best, a secret liaison officer
between the Greek and the Serbian army was exchanged after the war broke out.
Serbia and Bulgaria had signed treaties to split between them the land of Vardar Macedonia. Greece did not take part in it
though. After Greece vetoed the breakout of war several times in the summer, in order to better prepare her navy, the First
Balkan War broke out in October 1912 following an impossible ultimatum given to the Porte.
The First Balkan War
-
Territorial changes as a result of the First Balkan war, as of April 1913
No formal plan existed between the Balkan allies on how to wage the war, except for some cooperation between Serbia and
Montenegro over Novi Pazar. The war was practically four different wars fought against the
same enemy, at the same time, and in the same region. The Ottoman plans called for the use of an army from Syria to be
transferred in the Balkans as part of the defense. Due to Greek maritime operations this proved impossible. The Turks raised
their normal forces and in order to make up for the shortfall they raised the Army of Axios, which proved to be of low
quality.
Before the ultimatum Montenegro first declared war on October 5th. The main thrust was towards Shkodra, with secondary operations in the Novi Pazar area. Bulgaria attacked towards Eastern Thrace, being
stopped only at the outskirts of Constantinople in the Chataldja line. Serbia attacked south towards Skopje and Bitola. Meeting the Greek army later, they turned west towards the Adriatic. Greece landed forces in the
Halkidiki peninsula while the main force of the army attacked from Thessaly into Macedonian through the Sarantaporo straight. After the
liberation of Thessaloniki (October 26 1912, Julian calendar) the Greek army linked up with
the Serb army north and they turned west. Another Greek army had attacked into Epirus, and forces were deployed to that
front.
Following the declaration of war the Ottoman Navy did not dare exit the safety of the Dardanelles and spent most of its time in Nagaras. The Greek Navy was
free to liberate the islands of the Aegean, starting with Lemnos which was used as a base to monitor the Dardanelles. Following a
ceasefire in December between the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria, Serbia and Montenegro, the Turkish fleet twice exited the
Dardanelles but was twice defeated in the battles of Elle and Lemnos. In January after a coup, Turkey decided to continue the
war. Bulgarian forces managed to conquer Adrianople while Greek forces liberated Ioannina. The
war was ended with the Treaty of London on May 17 1913.
Second Balkan War
-
Though the Balkan allies had fought together against the common enemy, that was not enough to overcome their mutual rivalries.
While Serbian and Bulgarian claims, or Serbian and Greek claims, could be compromised upon, Greek and Bulgarian claims proved
irreconcilable. When the Greek army entered Thessaloniki, the Bulgarian 7th division was
only a day away, and they asked to allow a Bulgarian battalion to enter the city. Greece accepted in exchange for allowing a
Greek unit to enter the city of Serres. The Bulgarian unit that entered Thessaloniki turned out
to be a brigade instead of a battalion and caused concern among the Greeks, who viewed it as an attempt to establish a
condominium over the city. It was removed (along with the Greek unit
from Serres) by mutual treaty and was transported to Dedeağaç (modern Alexandroupolis),
leaving only a small force behind. Greece had also allowed the Bulgarians to control the stretch of the
Thessaloniki-Constantinople railroad that lay in Greek-occupied territory, since Bulgaria controlled the largest part of this
railroad anyway. Bulgaria however was not satisfied with the territory it controlled in Macedonia and asked Greece to relinquish
control of land even west of Thessaloniki, in Pieria. This alarmed Greece, which decided to
maintain a high level of alert on its army. Furthermore tension between Serbia and Bulgaria was rising.
After a series of negotiations Greece and Serbia signed a treaty of mutual defence against an attack on any part, not only
Bulgarian but also Austro-Hungarian on May 19/June 1, 1913. With this treaty a mutual border was agreed between the two and an
agreement for mutual diplomatic support. Both countries decided to remain on the defensive and not attack Bulgaria. Still the
Serbians kept the entire Vardar Macedonia because of the majority of population and historical claims. Claiming that the Serbians
did not recognize the border treaty they signed, it was Bulgaria that first attacked, without formally declaring war. On June 17,
1913 they attacked the Serbian army in Gevgelija and then the Greek army in Nigrita.
While the Serbian army faced superior Bulgarian forces and had problems, the Greek army was more successful. Retreating
according to plan for two days while Thessaloniki was cleared of remaining Bulgarian
detachments, the Greek army counterattacked and defeated the Bulgarians at Kilkis-Lahanas. However, the Greek army did not enter the city of Serres in time to prevent it
being razed by irregular Bulgarian units. The Greek army then divided their forces and advanced in two directions. Part proceeded
east and occupied all land west of the Mesta River. The rest of the Greek army advanced up
the Struma River valley, defeating the Bulgarian army in the battles of Doiran and Mt. Beles before themselves being defeated at the Kresna straights. The Greeks offered a ceasefire and the Bulgarians accepted due to the danger
posed by the Romanian army in the north.
Seeing the military position of the Bulgarian army, Romania and the Ottoman Empire decided to intervene. Romania raised an army and declared war on Bulgaria on June 27. They
encountered little resistance from the Bulgarians, and by the time of the ceasefire were only 30 kilometers from Sofia.
The Ottomans managed to retake Adrianople
(Edirne) which had historic significance for the Turks, being a former Ottoman capital city (see
Adrianople). The Ottomans also managed to recover eastern Thrace
which was largely lost in the First Balkan War, and thus regained a land mass in Europe which was only slightly larger than the
present-day European territory of the Republic of Turkey.
The Bucharest treaty and the borders of Albania
This section is in need of expansion.
Aftermath
The wars were an important precursor to World War I, to the extent that Austria-Hungary took alarm at the great increase in Serbia's territory and regional status. This concern
was shared by Germany, which saw Serbia as a satellite
of Russia. Serbia's rise in power thus contributed to the two Central Powers' willingness to risk war following the assassination in Sarajevo of the Archduke Francis Ferdinand of Austria in June 1914.
Then the Austro-Hungarian Army had a 3-year struggle to annex Serbia and Montenegro. This was accomplished when
Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria joined the central powers along with Germany.
Urlanis estimated in Voini I Narodo-Nacelenie Europi (1960) that in the first and
second Balkan wars there were 122,000 killed in action, 20,000 dead of wounds, and 82,000 dead of disease.
| Ethnic exchanges & expulsions between 1912
and 1915 |
|
Ottomans |
Greeks |
Bulgarians |
| Greek Macedonia |
100,000 |
|
50,000 |
| Greek+Serbian Macedonia |
|
|
100,000 |
| Thrace |
|
150,000–160,000 |
|
| Eastern section of Thrace |
|
|
51,000 |
| Western section of Thrace |
40,000–50,000 |
|
|
| Bulgaria-Ottoman Empire Border |
47,000 |
|
49,000 |
| Totals |
190,000–200,000 |
150,000–160,000 |
250,000 |
Notes
See also
Since the area has been referred to as the Balkans, notable conflicts have included:
External links
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