bioterrorism: Definition from Answers.com

Bioterrorism is the use of a biological weapon against a civilian or military population by a government, organization, or individual. As with any form of terrorism, its purposes include the undermining of morale, creating chaos, or achieving political goals. Biological weapons use microorganisms and toxins to produce disease and death in humans, livestock, and crops.

Bioterrorism is viewed as a serious threat to national security. For example, disaster scenarios created by United States government agencies predict that the release of a few hundred pounds of the spores of Bacillus anthracis (the bacterium that cause the disease called anthrax) upwind of Washington, D.C., could sicken or kill hundreds of thousands to millions of people within twenty-four hours.

Bioterrorism can also be used as a weapon to damage or destroy the economy of the target nation. A report from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimates the costs of dealing with a large-scale anthrax incident is at least $26 billion per 100,000 people. Only a few such incidents could cripple the economy of any nation. Indeed, the few anthrax incidents in the last few months of 2001 cost the United States government hundreds of millions of dollars in treatment, investigation, and other response measures.

Biological, chemical, and nuclear weapons can all be used to achieve similar destructive goals (i.e., massive loss of life). In comparison, biological weapons are inexpensive to make, relative to chemical and nuclear weapons. A sophisticated biological production facility can be set up in a warehouse, or even in a building as small as a house. Biological weapons are relatively easy to transport and resist detection by standard security systems.

In general, chemical weapons act immediately, causing illness in minutes. For example, the release of sarin gas in the Tokyo subway in 1995 by the religious sect Aum Shinrikyo almost immediately killed 12 and hospitalized 5,000 people. In contrast, the illness and death from biological weapons can occur more slowly, with evidence of exposure and illness appearing over time. Thus, a bioterrorist attack may at first be indistinguishable from a natural outbreak of an infectious disease. By the time the deliberate nature of the attack is realized, the health care system may be unable to cope with the large number of victims.

The deliberate production and stockpiling of biological weapons is prohibited by the 1972 Biological Weapons Convention. The United States ceased offensive production of biological weapons in 1969, on orders from then President Richard Nixon. The U.S. stockpiles were destroyed in 1971–1972. This measure has not stopped bioterrorists from acquiring the materials and expertize needed to produce biological weapons.

Genetic engineering can produce a wide variety of bioweapons including bacteria or viruses that produce toxins. More conventional laboratory technologies can also produce bacteria that are resistant to antibiotics.

Examples of the most likely to be used bioterrorist weapons include smallpox (caused by the Variola virus), anthrax (caused by Bacillus anthracis), and plague (caused by Yersinia pestis).

The last recorded case of smallpox was in Somalia in 1977. As of 2002, only two facilities—one in the United States and one in Russia—are authorized to store the virus. In spite of international prohibitions, security experts suspect that smallpox viruses may be under development as biological weapons in other laboratories of many nations. As recently as 1992, Russia had the ability to launch missiles containing weapons-grade smallpox. A number of terrorist organizations including Al Qaeda have explored the use of biological weapons.

Bioterrorism may ultimately prove to be more destructive than conventional warfare, because of the mobility of the weapons and their ability to spread infection through an entire population. An epidemic can spread a disease far from the point of origin of the illness.

Preparing a strategy to defend against biological warfare is challenging. Traditional identification of microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses relies on assays that detect growth of the microbes. Newer technologies detect microbes based on sequences of genetic material. The genetic technologies can detect microbes in minutes. As of 2002, however, the genetic technologies are not available to any but the most sophisticated field investigative units.

Researchers are also working to counter bioterrorist attacks using several other new technological strategies. For example, robots equipped with sensors or microchipmechanized insects (with computerized circuitry that can mimic biological processes such as neural networks) are being developed. Bees, beetles, and other insects outfitted with sensors are used to collect real-time information about the presence of toxins or similar threats. These new technologies could be used to examine a suspected biological weapon and spare exposing investigators to potential hazards. The robotics program of the Defense Advanced Research Project (DARPA) works to rapidly identify bio-responses to pathogens, and for designs to effectively and rapidly treat them.

Research is also underway to find genetic similarities between the microbes that could be used by bioterrorists. A vaccine made of a protein that is common to several bacteria could potentially offer protection to the exposure any bacterium in the group, for example.

Definition

“	A bioterrorism attack is the deliberate release of viruses, bacteria, or other germs (agents) used to cause illness or death in people, animals, or plants. These agents are typically found in nature, but it is possible that they could be changed to increase their ability to cause disease, make them resistant to current medicines, or to increase their ability to be spread into the environment. Biological agents can be spread through the air, through water, or in food. Terrorists may use biological agents because they can be extremely difficult to detect and do not cause illness for several hours to several days. Some bioterrorism agents, like the smallpox virus, can be spread from person to person and some, like anthrax, cannot.	”
—Centers for Disease Control and Prevention^[1]

Bioterrorism is an attractive weapon because biological agents are relatively easy and inexpensive to obtain or produce, can be easily disseminated, and can cause widespread fear and panic beyond the actual physical damage they can cause.^[2] Military leaders, however, have learned that, as a military asset, bioterrorism has some important limitations; it is difficult to employ a bioweapon in a way that only the enemy is affected and not friendly forces. A biological weapon is useful to a terrorist group mainly as a method of creating mass panic and disruption to a society. However, technologists such as Bill Joy have warned of the potential power which genetic engineering might place in the hands of future bio-terrorists.^[3]

The use of agents that do not cause harm to humans but disrupt the economy have been discussed.^{[citation needed]} A highly relevant pathogen in this context is the foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) virus, which is capable of causing widespread economic damage and public concern (as witnessed in the 2001 and 2007 FMD outbreaks in the UK), whilst having almost no capacity to infect humans.

History

Early usage

Biological terrorism dates as far back as ancient Roman civilization, where feces was thrown into faces of enemies.^[4] This early version of biological terrorism was used to destroy enemy forces covertly. It continued on into the 14th century where the bubonic plague was used to infiltrate enemy cities, both by instilling the fear of infection in residences, in hopes that they would evacuate, and also to destroy defending forces that would not yield to the attack. The use of disease as a weapon in this stage of history exhibited a lack of control aggressors had over their own biological weapons. Primitive medical technology provided limited means of protection for the aggressor and a battle's surrounding geographical regions. After the battle was won, the inability to contain enemies who escaped death led to widespread epidemics affecting not only the enemy forces, but also surrounding regions' inhabitants. Due to the use of these biological weapons, and the apparent lack of medical advancement necessary to defend surrounding regions from them, widespread epidemics such as the bubonic plague quickly moved across all of Western Europe, destroying a large portion of its population. The victims of biological terrorism in fact became weapons themselves. This was noted in the Middle Ages, but medical advancements had not progressed far enough to prevent the consequences of a weapons use.^[5]

Over time, biological warfare became more complex. Countries began to develop weapons which were much more effective, and much less likely to cause infection to the wrong party. One significant enhancement in biological weapon development was the first use of anthrax. Anthrax effectiveness was initially limited to victims of large dosages. This became a weapon of choice because it is easily transferred, has a high mortality rate, and could be easily obtained. Also, variants of the anthrax bacterium can be found all around the world making it the biological weapon of choice in the early 19th century. Another property of anthrax that helped fuel its use as a biological weapon is its poor ability to spread far beyond the targeted population.

Later On

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By the time World War I began, attempts to use anthrax were directed at animal populations. This was ineffective. Instead, the use of poisonous mustard gas became the biological weapon of choice.^[6]^{[dubious – discuss]} The sheer horror of its effects lead to a treaty called the Geneva Protocol of 1925. The treaty was created to prevent the use of asphyxiating gas as a method of biological warfare. While this was a significant advancement toward the prevention of biological weapon use, the treaty said nothing about weapon development. Secretly, biological weapon development programs existed in many nations. While no documented instances of biological weapon use exist it is believed that this was primarily due to the programs immaturity and not the unwillingness to use them.

Following the start of World War One, Germany launched a biological sabotage campaign in the United States, Russia, Romania, and France.^[7] At that time, Anton Dilger lived in Germany, but in 1915 he was sent to the United States carrying cultures of glanders, a virulent disease of horses and mules. Dilger set up a laboratory in his home in Chevy Chase, Maryland. He used stevedores working the docks in Baltimore to infect horses with glanders while they were waiting to be shipped to Britain. Dilger was under suspicion as being a German agent, but was never arrested. Dilger eventually fled to Madrid, Spain, where he died during the Influenza Pandemic of 1918.^[8] In 1916, the Russians arrested a German agent with similar intentions. Germany and its allies infected French cavalry horses and many of Russia’s mules and horses on the Eastern Front. These actions hindered artillery and troop movements, as well as supply convoys.^[7]

American biological weapon development began in 1942. President Franklin D. Roosevelt placed George W. Merck in charge of the effort to create a development program.^[9] These programs continued until 1969, when by executive order President Richard Nixon shut down all programs related to American offensive use of biological weapons.

Accusations of the use of biological weapons against North Korea were spread during the Vietnam war, however it is believed that those accusations were propaganda developed by the North Korean regime to villainize American Armed Forces. As the 1970s passed, global efforts to prevent the development of biological weapons and their use were widespread. In 1972 the prohibition of development, production and stockpiling biological weapons was developed.

Modernization

Americans allege that in the 1980’s Iraq made substantial efforts to develop and stockpile large amounts of biological weapons. By the end of the 80’s Iraq allegedly had several sites dedicated to the research and development of biological warfare. The US accused Iraq of testing its indings in the late 80’s. The USA attacked Iraq precisely on this pretext though could not prove the existence of biological weapons or any WMDs in Iraq.

Since that time, efforts to use biological warfare has been more apparent in small radical organizations attempting to create fear in the eyes of large groups. Some efforts have been partially effective in creating fear, due to the lack of visibility associated with modern biological weapon use by small organizations.

1993 - Japan - Aum Shinrikyo anthrax release in Kameido: In June 1993 the religious group Aum Shinrikyo released Anthrax in Tokyo. Eye witnesses reported a foul odor. The attack was a total failure, infecting not a single person. This case shows how difficult it is to aerosolize Anthrax spores in high concentration. ^[10]
1984 - USA - Rajneeshee bioterror attack: In 1984, followers of the Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh attempted to control a local election by incapacitating the local population. This was done by infecting salad bars in eleven restaurants, produce in grocery stores, doorknobs, and other public domains with Salmonella typhimurium bacteria in the city of The Dalles, Oregon. The attack infected 751 people with severe food poisoning. However, there were no fatalities. This incident was the first known bioterrorist attack in the United States in the 20th century.^[11]
2001 - USA - Anthrax Attacks: In September and October 2001, several cases of anthrax broke out in the United States in the 2001 anthrax attacks, caused deliberately. Letters laced with infectious anthrax were delivered to news media offices and the U.S Congress. The letters killed 5. Tests on the anthrax strand used in the attack pointed to a domestic source, possibly from the biological weapons program. Still the attacks provoced efforts to define biodefense and biosecurity, where more limited definitions of biosafety had focused on unintentional or accidental impacts of agricultural and medical technologies.

Types of agents

Category A

These high-priority agents pose a risk to national security, can be easily transmitted and disseminated, result in high mortality, have potential major public health impact, may cause public panic, or require special action for public health preparedness.

Anthrax: Anthrax is a non-contagious disease. An anthrax vaccine does exist but requires many injections for stable use. When discovered early Anthrax can be cured by administring antibiotics (Such as Ciprofloxacin). ^[12] Its first modern incidence in biological warfare were when Scandinavian "freedom fighters" supplied by the German General Staff used anthrax with unknown results against the Imperial Russian Army in Finland in 1916.^[13] In 1993 the Aum Shinrikyo used Anthrax in an unsuccessful attemp in Tokyo with zero fatalities. ^[14] Anthrax was used in a series of attacks on the offices of several United States Senators in late 2001. The Anthrax was in a powder form and it was delivered by the mail.^[15] Anthrax is one of the few biological agents that federal employees have been vaccinated for. The strain used in the 2001 anthrax attack was identical to the strain used by the USAMRIID.^[16]
Smallpox^[17]: Smallpox is a highly contagious virus. It is transmitted easily through the atmosphere and has a high mortality rate (20-40%). Smallpox was eliminated in the world in the 1970s, thanks to a worldwide vaccination program.^[18] However, some virus samples are still available in Russian and American laboratories. Some believe that after the collapse of the Soviet Union, cultures of smallpox have become available in other countries. Although people born pre-1970 will have been vaccinated for smallpox under the WHO program, the effectiveness of vaccination is limited since the vaccine provides high level of immunity for only 3 to 5 years. Revaccination's protection lasts longer.^[19] As a biological weapon smallpox is dangerous because of the highly contagious nature of both the infected and their pox. Also, the infrequency with which vaccines are administered among the general population since the eradication of the disease would leave most people unprotected in the event of an outbreak. Smallpox occurs only in humans, and has no external hosts or vectors.
Botulinum toxin^[20]: Botulinum toxin is one of the deadliest toxins known, and is produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum. Botulism causes death by respiratory failure and paralysis.^[21] Furthermore, the toxin is readily available worldwide due to its cosmetic applications in Botox injections.
Bubonic plague^[22]: Plague is a disease caused by the Yersinia pestis bacterium. Rodents are the normal host of plague, and the disease is transmitted to humans by flea bites and occasionally by aerosol in the form of pneumonic plague.^[23] The disease has a history of use in biological warfare dating back many centuries, and is considered a threat due to its ease of culture and ability to remain in circulation among local rodents for a long period of time. The weaponized threat comes mainly in the form of pneumonic plague (infection by inhalation)^[24]
Viral hemorrhagic fever^[25]: This includes the Filoviridae (containing the Marburg and Ebola genera), and the Arenaviridae (for example Lassa or Machupo). Ebola has fatality rates ranging from 50-90%. No cure currently exists, although vaccines are in development. The United States and the erstwhile Soviet Union both investigated the use of Ebola for biological warfare, and the Aum Shinrikyo group possessed cultures of the virus.^{[citation needed]} Ebola kills its victims through multiple organ failure and hypovolemic shock. Marburg was first discovered in Marburg, Germany. No treatments currently exist aside from supportive care. The Arenaviruses have a greatly reduced fatality rate, but a larger presence, chiefly in central Africa and South America.
Tularemia^[26]: Tularemia, or rabbit fever, has a very low fatality rate if treated, but can severely incapacitate. The disease is caused by the Francisella tularensis bacterium, and can be contracted through contact with the fur, inhalation, ingestion of contaminated water or insect bites.

Category B

Category B agents are moderately easy to disseminate and have low mortality rates.

Brucellosis (Brucella species)^[27] Brucellosis is an infectious disease caused by the bacteria of the genus Brucella. These bacteria are primarily passed among animals, and they cause disease in many different vertebrates. Various Brucella species affect sheep, goats, cattle, deer, elk, pigs, dogs, and several other animals. Humans become infected by coming in contact with animals or animal products that are contaminated with these bacteria. In humans brucellosis can cause a range of symptoms that are similar to the flu and may include fever, sweats, headaches, back pains, and physical weakness. Severe infections of the central nervous systems or lining of the heart may occur. Brucellosis can also cause long-lasting or chronic symptoms that include recurrent fevers, joint pain, and fatigue
Epsilon toxin of Clostridium perfringens
Food safety threats (e.g., Salmonella species, E coli O157:H7, Shigella, Staph)
Glanders^[28] (Burkholderia mallei)
Melioidosis (Burkholderia pseudomallei)^[29]^[30]
Psittacosis (Chlamydia psittaci)
Q fever (Coxiella burnetii)^[31]
Ricin ^[32] toxin from Ricinus communis (castor beans)
Staphylococcal enterotoxin B
Typhus (Rickettsia prowazekii)
Viral encephalitis (alphaviruses, e.g.: Venezuelan equine encephalitis, eastern equine encephalitis, western equine encephalitis)
Water supply threats (e.g., Vibrio cholerae,^[33] Cryptosporidium parvum)

Category C

Category C agents are emerging pathogens that might be engineered for mass dissemination because availability, easy to produce and disseminate, or may posses high mortality or a major health impact.^[1]

Planning and response

Planning may involve the development of biological identification systems.

Until recently in the United States, most biological defense strategies have been geared to protecting soldiers on the battlefield rather than ordinary people in cities. Financial cutbacks have limited the tracking of disease outbreaks. Some outbreaks, such as food poisoning due to E. coli or Salmonella, could be of either natural or deliberate origin.

Preparedness

Biological agents are relatively easy to obtain by terrorists and are becoming more threatening in the U.S., and laboratories are working on advanced detection systems to provide early warning, identify contaminated areas and populations at risk, and to facilitate prompt treatment. Methods for predicting the use of biological agents in urban areas as well as assessing the area for the hazards associated with a biological attack are being established in major cities. In addition, forensic technologies are working on identifying biological agents, their geographical origins and/or their initial son. forts include decontamination technologies to restore facilities without causing additional environmental concerns.

Early detection and rapid response to bioterrorism depend on close cooperation between public health authorities and law enforcement; however, such cooperation is currently lacking. National detection assets and vaccine stockpiles are not useful if local and state officials do not have access to them.^[34]

Biosurveillance

In 1999, the University of Pittsburgh's Center for Biomedical Informatics deployed the first automated bioterrorism detection system, called RODS (Real-Time Outbreak Disease Surveillance). RODS is designed to draw collect data from many data sources and use them to perform signal detection, that is, to detect the a possible bioterrorism event at the earliest possible moment. RODS, and other systems like it, collect data from sources including clinic data, laboratory data, and data from over-the-counter drug sales.^[35]^[36] In 2000, Michael Wagner, the codirector of the RODS laboratory, and Ron Aryel, a subcontractor, conceived of the idea of obtaining live data feeds from "non-traditional" (non-health-care) data sources. The RODS laboratory's first efforts eventually led to the establishment of the National Retail Data Monitor, a system which collects data from 20,000 retail locations nation-wide.^[35]

On February 5, 2002, George W. Bush visited the RODS laboratory and used it as a model for a $300 million spending proposal to equip all 50 states with biosurveillance systems. In a speech delivered at the nearby Masonic temple, Bush compared the RODS system to a modern "DEW" line (referring to the Cold War ballistic missile early warning system).^[37]

The principles and practices of biosurveillance, a new interdisciplinary science, were defined and described in the Handbook of Biosurveillance, edited by Michael Wagner, Andrew Moore and Ron Aryel, and published in 2006. Biosurveillance is the science of real-time disease outbreak detection. Its principles apply to both natural and man-made epidemics (bioterrorism).

Data which potentially could assist in early detection of a bioterrorism event include many categories of information. Health-related data such as that from hospital computer systems, clinical laboratories, electronic health record systems, medical examiner record-keeping systems, 911 call center computers, and veterinary medical record systems could be of help; researchers are also considering the utility of data generated by ranching and feedlot operations, food processors, drinking water systems, school attendance recording, and physiologic monitors, among others.^[36] Intuitively, one would expect systems which collect more than one type of data to be more useful than systems which collect only one type of information (such as single-purpose laboratory or 911 call-center based systems), and be less prone to false alarms, and this appears to be the case.

In Europe, disease surveillance is beginning to be organized on the continent-wide scale needed to track a biological emergency. The system not only monitors infected persons, but attempts to discern the origin of the outbreak.

Researchers are experimenting with devices to detect the existence of a threat:

Tiny electronic chips that would contain living nerve cells to warn of the presence of bacterial toxins (identification of broad range toxins)
Fiber-optic tubes lined with antibodies coupled to light-emitting molecules (identification of specific pathogens, such as anthrax, botulinum, ricin)

New research shows that ultraviolet avalanche photodiodes offer the high gain, reliability and robustness needed to detect anthrax and other bioterrorism agents in the air. The fabrication methods and device characteristics were described at the 50th Electronic Materials Conference in Santa Barbara on June 25, 2008. Details of the photodiodes were also published in the February 14, 2008 issue of the journal Electronics Letters and the November 2007 issue of the journal IEEE Photonics Technology Letters.^[38]

Response to bioterrorism incident or threat

Government agencies which would be called on to respond to a bioterrorism incident would include law enforcement, hazardous materials/decontamination units and emergency medical units. The US military has specialized units, which can respond to a bioterrorism event; among them are the US Marine Corp's Chemical Biological Incident Response Force and the U.S. Army's 20th Support Command (CBRNE), which can detect, identify, and neutralize threats, and decontaminate victims exposed to bioterror agents.

References

Notes

^ ^a ^b Bioterrorism Overview, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2008-02-12, http://www.bt.cdc.gov/bioterrorism/overview.asp, retrieved on 2009-05-22
^ of Biologics as Weapons Bioterrorism: A Threat to National Security or Public Health Defining Issue? MM&I 554 University of Wisconsin at Madison and Wisconsin State Laboratory of Hygiene, September 30, 2008
^ Joy, Bill (2007-03-31), Why the Future Doesn't Need Us: How 21st Century Technologies Threaten to Make Humans an Endangered Species, Random House, ISBN 978-0553528350
^ Block 2001
^ Eitzen & Takafuji 1997
^ Poison Gas and World War One, History Learning Site
^ ^a ^b Gregory, B; Waag, D. (1997) (PDF), Military Medicine: Medical aspects of biological warfare, Office of the Surgeon General, Department of the Army, http://www.bordeninstitute.army.mil/published_volumes/biological_warfare/BW-ch06.pdf, retrieved on 2009-05-22
^ Experts Q & A, Public Broadcasting Service, 2006-12-15, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/weapon/sfeature/qa.html, retrieved on 2009-05-22
^ Endicott,S.L., and Hagerman,Edward, World War Two Origins,Chapter 2, in The United States and Biological Warfare, Indiana University Press, 1998 ISBN 0253334721, p.27
^ http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol10no1/03-0238.htm, CDC-Bacillus anthracis Incident, Kameido, Tokyo, 1993]
^ Past U.S. Incidents of Food Bioterrorism Bioterrorism: A Threat to National Security or Public Health Defining Issue, University of Wisconsin at Madison and the the Wisconsin State Laboratory of Hygiene, MM&I 554, September 30, 2008
^ Vietri N. J. et al, A Short Course of Antibiotic Treatment Is Effective in Preventing Death from Experimental Inhalational Anthrax after Discontinuing Antibiotics, The Journal of Infectious Diseases 2009
^ Bisher, Jamie, "During World War I, Terrorists Schemed to Use Anthrax in the Cause of Finnish Independence," Military History, August 2003, pp. 17-22.Anthrax Sabotage in Finland
^ http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol10no1/03-0238.htm, CDC-Bacillus anthracis Incident, Kameido, Tokyo, 1993]
^ Puneet K. Dewan, Alicia M. Fry, Kayla Laserson, et al Inhalational Anthrax Outbreak among Postal Workers, Washington, D.C., 2001 Emerging Infectious Diseases, Vol 8, No 10, October 2002
^ New Scientist
^ CDC Smallpox
^ What CDC Is Doing to Protect the Public From Smallpox
^ Military Vaccination Program website
^ CDC Botulism
^ CDC Botulism Factsheet
^ CDC Plague
^ CDC Plague Home Page
^ Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) About Plague
^ CDC VuralHemirrhagic Fevers
^ CDC Tularemia
^ CDC Brucellosis
^ CDC Glanders
^ CDC Melioidosis
^ CDC Why has melioidosis become a current issue?
^ CDC Q Fever
^ CDC Ricin
^ WebMD.com Cholera
^ Bernett, Brian C. (December 2006) (PDF), US Biodefense and Homeland Security: Toward Detection and Attribution, Monteray, California, United States: Naval Postgraduate School, p. 21, http://www.ccc.nps.navy.mil/research/theses/bernett06.pdf, retrieved on 2009-05-24
^ ^a ^b Wagner, Michael M.; Espino, Jeremy;et al. (2004), "The role of clinical information systems in public health surveillance", Healthcare Information Management Systems (3 ed.), New York: Springer-Verlag, pp. 513-539
^ ^a ^b Wagner, Michael M.; Aryel, Ron;et al. (2001-11-28) (PDF), Availability and Comparative Value of Data Elements Required for an Effective Bioterrorism Detection System, Real-time Outbreak and Disease Surveillance Laboratory, http://rods.health.pitt.edu/LIBRARY/dato2AHRQInterimRpt112801.pdf, retrieved on 2009-05-22
^ Togyer, Jason (2002-06), Pitt Magazine: Airborne Defense, University of Pittsburg, http://www.pittmag.pitt.edu/june2002/feature1.html, retrieved on 2009-05-22
^ Avalanche Photodiodes Target Bioterrorism Agents Newswise, Retrieved on June 25, 2008.

Bibliography

Block, Steven M. (2001), The growing threat of biological weapons, 89:1, American Scientist, doi:10.1511/2001.1.28, http://www.americanscientist.org/issues/feature/the-growing-threat-of-biological-weapons, retrieved on 2009-05-22
Christopher, G. W.; et al. (1998), Adapted from Biological Warfare: A Historical Perspective, Fort Detrick, Maryland: Operational Medicine Division
Eitzen, E.; Takafuji, E. (1997), "Historical Overview of Biological Warfare", Military Medicine: Medical Aspects of Chemical and Biological Warfare, Office of the Surgeon General, Department of the Army
Iraq's Biological Weapon Program, Iraq's Biological Weapon Program, August 2006, http://www.iraqwatch.org/profiles/biological.html, retrieved on 2009-05-22
Milanovich, F. (June 1998), Reducing the threat of biological weapons, Science and Technology Review, pp. 4-9, http://www.llnl.gov/str/Milan.html, retrieved on 2009-05-22
Paquette, Laure (2006-06-29), Bioterrorism in Medical and Healthcare Administration (1 ed.), CRC, ISBN 978-0824756512, http://books.google.com/books?id=fLUIfjbpjUIC&pg=PP1&dq=Bioterrorism+in+Medical+and+Healthcare+Administration, retrieved on 2009-05-22
Rózsa, L. (2009) (PDF), The motivation for biological aggression is an inherent and common aspect of the human behavioural repertoire, Medical Hypotheses, pp. 72, 217-219, http://www.zoologia.hu/list/motivation.pdf, retrieved on 2009-05-22
Wagner, M.; Moore, A.; Aryel, R. (2006), Handbook of Biosurveillance, San Diego, California, United States: Academic Press

External links

Wikisource has original text related to this article:

The Town That Was Poisoned

Emerging Health Threats Forum
EU Health Portal Information on EU activities related to bioterrorism
United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
NOVA: Bioterror
Pandemics and Bioterrorism: From Realistic Threats to Effective Policies

v • d • e Bioterrorism

Related concepts	Bacteria · Biocontainment · Biological hazard · Biological warfare · Decontamination · Entomological warfare · Infectious disease · Virus · Toxin · Terrorism

Biological agents	Anthrax · Avian influenza · Botulinum toxin · Brucellosis · Burkholderia pseudomallei · Chlamydophila psittaci · Coxiella burnetii · Ebola · Equine Encephalitis · Foodborne illness · Fungi · Glanders · Hantavirus · Henipavirus · Legionnaires' disease · Marburg virus · Mold · Plague · Ricin · Salmonella enterica · Salmonellosis · Salmonella typhi · Smallpox · Staphylococcus · Tularemia · Typhus · Viral hemorrhagic fever

Modern bioterrorist incidents	1984 Rajneeshee bioterror attack · 2001 anthrax attacks · 2003 ricin letters

Prevention and response	Australia Group · Center for Biosecurity · Centers for Disease Control and Prevention · Council of Europe Convention on the Prevention of Terrorism · Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency · Defense Threat Reduction Agency · European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control · Global Health Security Initiative · Health Threat Unit · Laboratory Response Network · National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center · National Science Advisory Board for Biosecurity · United States Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases

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