bird of paradise

1. Any of various birds of the family Paradisaeidae, native to New Guinea and adjacent islands, usually having brilliant plumage and long tail feathers in the male.
2. Any of several southern African herbs of the genus Strelitzia, especially S. reginae, having orange and blue flowers grouped above a boat-shaped bract.

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(Paradisaeidae)

Class: Aves

Order: Passeriformes

Suborder: Passeri (Oscines)

Family: Paradisaeidae

Thumbnail description
Small to very large, powerfully footed, highly animated, and vocal crow-like passerines, most of which are sexually dichromatic. Highly colorful and elaborated, adult male plumages of polygynous species are used in spectacular and complex courtship displays.

Size
6.3–43.3 in (16–110 cm); 0.11–1 lb (50–450 g)

Number of genera, species
17 genera; 42 species

Habitat
Lowland to subalpine rainforests and some associated forests and wet woodland communities

Conservation status
Vulnerable: 4 species; Near Threatened: 8 species

Distribution
Mainland New Guinea and offshore islands, the northern Moluccas of Indonesia, and northeastern and central eastern Australia

Evolution and systematics

Birds of paradise belong to parvorder Corvida, which is considered an ancient lineage of Australo-Papuan passerines derived from Gondwanan stock. Scientists traditionally associated them most closely with bowerbirds (Ptilonorhynchidae), but a major dichotomy between the two groups has been widely accepted. Results of several molecular studies place the separation of birds of paradise and other corvines (superfamily Corvoidea) from bowerbirds (superfamily Menuroidea) at 28 million years ago. The current distribution of birds of paradise strongly supports the thesis that the group radiated in New Guinea. All of the generic radiations are either endemic or largely confined to New Guinea.

The family Paradisaeidae comprises 17 genera and 42 species that are divided into two subfamilies: three species of wide-gaped (Cnemophilinae) and 39 species of typical (Paradisaeinae) birds of paradise. The Cnemophilinae consist of two polygynous Cnemophilus and one little known Loboparadisea species. The Pardisaeinae comprises seven species in three genera (Macgregoria, Lycocorax, Manucodia) known or presumed to be monogamous, and 32 species in 12 genera (Paradigalla, Astrapia, Parotia, Pteridophora, Ptiloris, Lophorina, Epimachus, Drepanornis, Cicinnurus, Semioptera, Seleucidis, Paradisaea) known or presumed to be polygynous. Seventy-five subspecies are presently recognized. The two subfamilies are highly distinctive and share few unambiguous derived characters that prove they are of the same lineage.

Physical characteristics

Birds of paradise vary in size from 6 in (15 cm) and 0.11 lb (50 g) for the king bird of paradise (Cicinnurus regius) to 17.3 in (44 cm) and 1 lb (450 g) for the curl-crested manucode (Manucodia comrii). When tails are added into the size calculations, some birds of paradise exceed 40 in (100 cm) in length. Typically males are larger and heavier than females. As a result of strong morphological radiation, the bill of the various genera varies from short to long, slim to stout, and straight to dramatically curved. The small and finelytipped weak bill of cnemophilins has a wide gape as an adaptation to an exclusive drupe and berry fruit diet. They also have relatively fine and weak legs and feet. In contrast, paradisaeins have large and powerful legs and feet used to acrobatically cling to substrates and to hold food items.

Several species exhibit areas of pigmented bare skin; for example, Wilson's bird of paradise (Cicinnurus respublica) has extensive bright blue bare head skin. Some species have brightly colored wattles or legs and feet. Bare parts tend to be much brighter in males than in females, and they may relate to courtship display and act as species-specific social signals.

Males of species with a brightly colored mouth interior typically gape the bill widely to present this in courtship calling and display.

Species of Macgregoria, Manucodia, Lycocorax, and Paradigalla are generally black and sexually monochromatic with some blue/green iridescence to their feathering. Other species (all polygynous) are sexually dichromatic, with adult males adorned with colorful and often highly elaborated plumage. The remarkably modified and erectile elongate head plumes of Parotia and Pteridophora are associated with gross cranial modifications to facilitate large muscles required to manipulate the plumes during display. The only crested species is Cnemophilus macgregorii, in which both sexes wear a diminutive sagittal crest of a few filamentous sickle-shaped feathers. Females of polygynous species are drably colored in subdued browns and dull yellows (Paradisaea) or are brown and/or rufous above and drably paler below with darker barring to give a cryptic appearance. Males take at least five to seven years to fully acquire adult plumage. Limited evidence suggests that females breed at an earlier age than males, probably after their first year or two. Hatchlings have very little down and their skin becomes characteristically dark after several days.

Birds of paradise have ten primaries and twelve tail feathers. In adult males, tail feathers may be highly modified as nuptial display traits. In any given species these may become longer or shorter, even within a single genus, and more ornate with increasing male age. In most genera the wings are rounded. In adult males of several genera some outer primaries are slightly to highly modified in shape, probably for the production of mechanical sound in flight. The Manucodia exhibit a greatly elongated, coiled, trachea that is displaced to sit subcutaneously on top of the pectoral muscles. This structure produces low far-carrying tremulous call notes unique within the group.

Distribution

Thirty-eight species live on the mainland of New Guinea and its adjacent islands, two are peculiar to the northern Moluccas of Indonesia (paradise crows [Lycocorax pyrrhopterus] and standardwing birds of paradise [Semioptera wallacii]), and two are endemic to areas of eastern Australia (paradise [Ptiloris paradiseus] and Victoria's [P. victoriae] riflebirds). Magnificent riflebirds (P. magnificus) and trumpet manucodes (Manucodia keraudrenii) occur on both New Guinea and the extreme northeastern tip of Australia.

Because of the great altitudinal range of New Guinea, forest-dwelling species have segregated and live within different forest types within one or more altitudinal zones. Elevation is perhaps the most important ecological sorting mechanism permitting the adaptive radiation of local avian lineages in birds of paradise, and also offers closely related species the opportunity to avoid competition while establishing limited geographic sympatry (meeting along a narrow altitudinal zone). Thirteen intergeneric and seven intrageneric wild hybrid crosses have been documented where their ranges/favored habitats overlap, dramatically emphasizing the close genetic relationships between the species of the Paradisaeinae.

Habitat

All species depend on closed humid forest over much of their geographical range, and rainforests and/or moss forests are the most typical habitats of the family as a whole. Associated rainforest edges, wet sclerophyll (Australian vegetation with hard, short, and often spiky leaves) forests and woodlands, gardens, savanna, and subalpine woodlands are also used. Only paradise riflebirds range southward across the Tropic of Capricorn to about 32° South within the subtropics. Glossy-mantled manucodes (Manucodia atra) are exceptional in inhabiting relatively dry open savanna woodlands in addition to lowland rainforests.

Behavior

The majority of species exhibit polygynous (court- and lekbased type) mating systems with promiscuous males and exclusively female nest attendance. Sexual selection has produced male vocalizations, elborate plumages, and complex courtship choreography. Males of polygynous species occupy a mating area and modify display sites by removing leaves and/or debris to create a visual marker to the site. At their display site, males emit an advertisement song of harsh, loud, crow-, bell-, and bugle-like notes, screeches, and rapid bursts of powerful notes to attract females. Other diverse sounds produced in display include wing beating, bill rattling, primary swishing, and wing snapping, and flight induced noise.

Displays of promiscuous males range from solitary and non-territorial (the most common type) to communal lekking mating systems, with a range of intermediate manifestations. Display sites of some males are not dispersed evenly through habitat but are loosely (exploded leks) or tightly (true leks) clustered. In true lekking species, males display in a tight cluster in the canopy branches of one or more trees, and their leks tend to be distantly spaced, long lived, and traditional. Much display activity apparently maintains a male-male dominance hierarchy that limits the choice of potential mates by females to one or more 'alpha' males occupying the central lek position. A small percentage of males of lekking bird species obtain most of the matings in any single season.

Females of known monogamous species emit identifiable vocalizations, whereas among polygynous species all of the loudly broadcast vocalizations are male advertisement calls and females are virtually mute.

Feeding ecology and diet

Birds of paradise eat a range of food types (omnivorous), but they seem to be primarily fruit and arthropod eaters. Only the Cnemophilinae appear not to eat arthropods. Collectively, birds of paradise are known to eat fruits of several hundred plant species, flowers, nectar, leaves, insects, spiders, frogs, and lizards. Most typical birds of paradise initially feed nestlings arthropods but switch to a predominantly fruit or mixed fruit and arthropod diet after a certain age. Parent birds of paradise regurgitate food items to young.

Birds take insects by bark gleaning, dead wood/foliage probing/tearing, and generalized twig and foliage gleaning.

The sexes of predominantly insectivorous species show marked sexual dimorphism in bill size and shape, presumably to limit intersexual competition for this resource.

Other than foraging in ones or twos, birds of paradise (mostly brown female-plumaged individuals) commonly join mixed species foraging flocks of typically brown and/or black birds, predominantly in lowland and hill forest.

Reproductive biology

Courtship in monogamous species is simplistic, consisting of little more than chasing, vocalizing, and limited display posturing in canopy foliage. In polygynous species, courtship is far more complex. The elaborate nuptial plumes of adult males are specifically presented to females in a stereotyped courtship. For example, male Paradisaea lean forward and downward and lower open wings so that their lacy flank plumes can be raised above their back and head, and males of emperor (P. guilielmi) and blue (P. rudolphi) birds of paradise hang fully upside down in courtship. Slow and rhythmic leg flexing that enhances the effect of longer plumes is incorporated into some displays.

All species for which nests are known are solitary nesters. Females of polygynous species construct the nest alone; whether both sexes of monogamous species share the task is not known. Nests of Cnemophilus species are dense, substantial, roughly spherical, domed structures predominantly composed of slender orchid stems overlaid with fresh mosses and ferns that incorporate a token foundation of a few stout short woody sticks. These nests are extremely cryptic. Nests of members of the Paradisaeinae are typically found in tree branches. Nests of the Paradisaeinae (except Manucodia species) are open cup- or bowl-shaped and built of orchid stems, mosses, and fern fronds on branch forks. Manucodia construct a sparse and relatively shallow open cup made predominantly of vine tendrils and suspend it between horizontal forking branches.

Eggs are typically elliptical, ovate, and pinkish to buff with long, broad, brush-stroke-like markings of browns, grays, and lavender or purplish gray. The clutch consists of one or two (rarely three) eggs. Limited data indicate that most multi-egg clutches are laid on successive days, and egg weights as a proportion of mean adult female body weight average 10–15%. Incubation varies from 14 to 27 days. Nestling periods, which are generally longer in higher-altitude species, vary among species from 14 to more than 30 days. Nestling eyes open at about six days old. The care of dependant young out of the nest is little known. Renesting occurs following a nest loss, but there is no evidence of two broods being successfully raised in a single season.

As a generalization, far more breeding takes place during the months between August and January than during February to July, with March to June being least productive. This broad seasonality appears to coincide with a period of abundance of fruits and arthropod prey. A similar cycle occurs in Australia.

Conservation status

Macgregor's bird of paradise (Macgregoria pulchra), black sicklebill (Epimachus fastuosus), Wahnes's parotia (Parotia wahnesi), and blue bird of paradise are listed as Vulnerable.

The yellow-breasted bird of paradise (Loboparadisea sericea), long-tailed paradigalla (Paradigalla carunculata ), ribbon-tailed astrapia (Astrapia mayeri), pale-billed sicklebill (Drepanornis bruijnii), and Wilson's, Goldie's (Paradisaea decora), red (P. rubra), and emperor birds of paradise are considered Near Threatened species.

Significance to humans

Resplendently plumaged adult males of many species have long been killed and their skins preserved for the personal adornment of Papuan men and as highly valued items of trade.

Species accounts

Resources

Frith, C.B., and B. M. Beehler. The Birds of Paradise: Paradisaeidae. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.

Gilliard, E.T. Birds of Paradise and Bower Birds. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1969.

Beehler, B.M. "The Birds of Paradise." Scientific American 261 (1989): 116–123.

Beehler, B.M., and S.G. Pruett-Jones. "Display Dispersion and Diet of Birds of Paradise, a Comparison of Nine Species." Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 13 (1983): 229–238.

Cracraft, J., and J. Feinstein. "What Is Not a Bird of Paradise? Molecular and Morphological Evidence Places Macgregoria in the Meliphagidae and the Cnemophilinae Near the Base of the Corvoid Tree." Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B. 267 (2000): 233–241.

Frith, C.B., and D. W. Frith. "Biometrics of Birds of Paradise (Aves: Paradisaeidae) with Observations on Interspecific and Intraspecific Variation and Sexual Dimorphism." Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 42 (1997): 159–212.

Birds Australia. 415 Riversdale Road, Hawthorn East, Victoria 3123 Australia. Phone: +61 3 9882 2622. Fax: +61 3 98822677. E-mail: mail@birdsaustralia.com.au Web site:

[Article by: Clifford B. Frith, PhD; Dawn W. Frith, PhD]

For more information on bird-of-paradise, visit Britannica.com.

Birds of Paradise
Adult male Lesser Bird of Paradise, Paradisaea minor
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Aves Order: Passeriformes Family: Paradisaeidae
Genera
13, see list below

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Paradisaeidae

The birds of paradise are members of the family Paradisaeidae of the order Passeriformes. They are found in western Indonesia, Torres Strait Islands, Papua New Guinea, and eastern Australia. The members of this family are perhaps best known for the plumage of the males of most species, in particular highly elongated and elaborate feathers extending from the beak, wings or head. Birds of paradise range in size from the King Bird of Paradise at 50 grams (1.8 oz) and 15 cm (6 inches) to the Black Sicklebill at 110 cm (43 inches) and the Curl-crested Manucode at 430 grams. (15.2 oz).

Best known are the members of the genus Paradisaea, including the type species, the Greater Bird of Paradise, Paradisaea apoda. This species was described from specimens brought back to Europe from trading expeditions. These specimens had been prepared by native traders by removing their wings and feet so that they might be used as decorations. This was not known to the explorers and led to the belief that these birds never landed but were kept permanently aloft by their plumes. This is the origin of both the name "birds of paradise" and the specific name apoda - without feet.

Most species have elaborate mating rituals, with the Paradisaea species having a lek-type mating system. Others, such as the Cicinnurus and Parotia species, have highly ritualized mating dances. Males are polygamous in the sexually dimorphic species. Hybridization is frequent in these birds. Many hybrids have been described as new species, and in some forms, such as Rothschild's Lobe-billed Bird of Paradise, even today some doubt remains whether they might not be valid.

Clutch size is somewhat uncertain. In the large species, it is probably almost always just one egg. Smaller species may produce clutches of 2-3.(Mackay 1990)

Relationship with humans

Societies of New Guinea often use bird of paradise plumes in their dress and rituals, and the plumes were very important in Europe in ladies' millinery in past centuries. Hunting for plumes and habitat destruction have reduced some species to endangered status; habitat destruction due to deforestation is now the predominant threat.

Hunting birds of paradise for their plumes for the millinery trade was extensive in the late 19th and early 20th century (Cribb 1997), but today the birds enjoy legal protection and hunting is only permitted at a sustainable level to fulfill the ceremonial needs of the local tribal population. In the case of Pteridophora plumes, scavenging from old bowerbird bowers is encouraged. When King Mahendra of Nepal was crowned in 1955, it was found that the bird of paradise plumes of the Nepali royal crown were in need of replacement. Due to the hunting ban, replacements were eventually procured from a confiscated shipment seized by United States Customs.

Hunting of birds of paradise has occurred for a long time, possibly since the beginning of human settlement. It is a peculiarity that among the most frequently-hunted species, males start mating opportunistically even before they grow their ornamental plumage. This may be an adaptation maintaining population levels in the face of hunting pressures, which have probably been present for 30 millennia.

An adult-plumaged male bird of paradise is depicted on the flag of Papua New Guinea. David Attenborough has nominated some bird of paradise as his favorite animal species, probably referring to Wilson's Bird of Paradise.

Species of Paradisaeidae

Genus Lycocorax

• Paradise Crow, Lycocorax pyrrhopterus

Genus Manucodia

• Glossy-mantled Manucode, Manucodia atra
• Jobi Manucode, Manucodia jobiensis
• Crinkle-collared Manucode, Manucodia chalybata
• Curl-crested Manucode, Manucodia comrii
• Trumpet Manucode, Manucodia keraudrenii

Genus Paradigalla

• Long-tailed Paradigalla, Paradigalla carunculata
• Short-tailed Paradigalla, Paradigalla brevicauda

Genus Astrapia

• Arfak Astrapia, Astrapia nigra
• Splendid Astrapia, Astrapia splendidissima
• Ribbon-tailed Astrapia, Astrapia mayeri
• Stephanie's Astrapia, Astrapia stephaniae
• Huon Astrapia, Astrapia rothschildi

Genus Parotia

• Western Parotia, Parotia sefilata
• Carola's Parotia, Parotia carolae
• Berlepsch's Parotia, Parotia berlepschi
• Lawes's Parotia, Parotia lawesii
• Eastern Parotia, Parotia helenae
• Wahnes's Parotia, Parotia wahnesi

Genus Pteridophora

• King of Saxony Bird of Paradise, Pteridophora alberti

Genus Lophorina

• Superb Bird of Paradise, Lophorina superba

Genus Ptiloris

• Magnificent Riflebird, Ptiloris magnificus
• Eastern Riflebird, Ptiloris intercedens
• Paradise Riflebird, Ptiloris paradiseus
• Victoria's Riflebird, Ptiloris victoriae

Genus Epimachus

• Black Sicklebill, Epimachus fastuosus
• Brown Sicklebill, Epimachus meyeri
• Black-billed Sicklebill, Epimachus albertisi
• Pale-billed Sicklebill, Epimachus bruijnii

Genus Cicinnurus

• Magnificent Bird of Paradise, Cicinnurus magnificus
• Wilson's Bird of Paradise, Cicinnurus respublica
• King Bird of Paradise, Cicinnurus regius

Genus Semioptera

• Wallace's Standardwing, Semioptera wallacii

Genus Seleucidis

• Twelve-wired Bird of Paradise, Seleucidis melanoleuca

Genus Paradisaea

• Lesser Bird of Paradise, Paradisaea minor
• Greater Bird of Paradise, Paradisaea apoda
• Raggiana Bird of Paradise, Paradisaea raggiana
• Goldie's Bird of Paradise, Paradisaea decora
• Red Bird of Paradise, Paradisaea rubra
• Emperor Bird of Paradise, Paradisaea guilielmi
• Blue Bird of Paradise, Paradisaea rudolphi

Greater "Melampitta"

• Greater Melampitta, "Melampitta" gigantea - tentatively included in this group

Formerly placed here

• Loria's Bird-of-paradise, Cnemophilus loriae - probably closer to Melanocharitidae (berrypeckers) (Cracraft & Feinstein 2000).
• Crested Bird-of-paradise, Cnemophilus macgregorii - probably closer to Melanocharitidae (Cracraft & Feinstein 2000).
• Yellow-breasted Bird-of-paradise, Loboparadisea sericea - probably closer to Melanocharitidae (Cracraft & Feinstein 2000).
• Macgregor's Giant Honeyeater (formerly "Macgregor's Bird-of-paradise"), Macgregoria pulchra - recently found to be a honeyeater (Cracraft & Feinstein 2000).
• Lesser Melampitta, Melampitta lugubris - for some time tentatively placed here; probably Orthonychidae (logrunners)

See also

• Fauna of New Guinea

References

• Cracraft, J. & Feinstein, J. (2000): What is not a bird of paradise? Molecular and morphological evidence places Macgregoria in the Meliphagidae and the Cnemophilinae near the base of the corvoid tree. Proc. R. Soc. B 267: 233-241.
• Cribb, Robert (1997): Birds of paradise and environmental politics in colonial Indonesia, 1890-1931. In: Boomgaard, Peter; Columbijn, Freek & Henley, David(eds.): Paper landscapes: explorations in the environmental history of Indonesia: 379-408. KITLV Press, Leiden. ISBN 90-6718-124-2
• Frith, Clifford B. & Beehler, Bruce M. (1998): The Birds of Paradise: Paradisaeidae. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-854853-2
• Mackay, Margaret D. (1990): The Egg of Wahnes' Parotia Parotia wahnesi (Paradisaeidae). Emu 90(4): 269. PDF fulltext

External links

• Birds of Paradise
• Streaming video of a few birds of paradise's courtship display

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