Bodhidharma (fl. 526/527 CE) was the
Buddhist monk traditionally credited as the transmitter of
Zen to China. Very little contemporary biographical information on Bodhidharma is extant, and
subsequent accounts became layered with legend, but most accounts agree that he was a South
Indian monk who journeyed to southern China and subsequently
relocated northwards. The accounts differ on the date of his arrival, with one early account claiming that he arrived during the
Liú Sòng Dynasty (420–479) and later accounts dating his arrival to the
Liáng Dynasty (502–557). The accounts are, however, generally agreed that he was primarily
active in the lands of the Northern Wèi Dynasty (386–534).
Biography
Contemporary accounts
There are two known extant accounts written by contemporaries of Bodhidharma.
Yáng Xuànzhī
The Record of the Buddhist Monasteries of Luoyang (洛陽伽藍記 Luòyáng Qiélánjì), was
compiled in 547 by Yáng Xuànzhī, a writer and translator of Mahāyāna Buddhist texts into the Chinese language. Yang identifies Bodhidharma as a Persian (波斯國胡人 bō-sī guó hú rén) from Central Asia (西域 xī
yù):
At that time there was a monk of the Western Region named Bodhidharma, a Persian Central Asian. He traveled from the wild
borderlands to China. Seeing the golden disks [on the pole on top of Yung-ning's stupa] reflecting
in the sun, the rays of light illuminating the surface of the clouds, the jewel-bells on the stupa blowing in the wind, the
echoes reverberating beyond the heavens, he sang its praises. He exclaimed: "Truly this is the work of spirits." He said: "I am
150 years old, and I have passed through numerous countries. There is virtually no country I have not visited. But even in
India there is nothing comparable to the pure beauty of this monastery. Even the distant Buddha
realms lack this." He chanted homage and placed his palms together in salutation for days on end.[1]
Broughton (1999:55) dates Bodhidharma's presence in Luoyang to between 516 and 526, when
the temple referred to—Yǒngníngsì (永寧寺)—was at the height of its glory. Starting in 526, Yǒngníngsì suffered damage from a series
of events, ultimately leading to its destruction in 534.[2]
Tánlín
The second account was written by Tánlín (曇林; 506–574). Tánlín's brief biography of the "Dharma Master" is found in his
preface to the Two Entrances and Four
Acts, a text traditionally attributed to Bodhidharma, and is the first text to identify Bodhidharma as
South Indian:
The Dharma Master was a South Indian of the Western Region. He was the third son of a great Indian king [...] His ambition lay
in the Mahayana path, and so he put aside his white layman's robe for the black robe of a monk
[...] Lamenting the decline of the true teaching in the outlands, he subsequently crossed distant mountains and seas, traveling
about propagating the teaching in Han and Wei.[3]
Tánlín's account was the first to mention that Bodhidharma attracted disciples,[4] specifically mentioning Dàoyù (道育) and Huìkě, the latter of whom would
later figure very prominently in the Bodhidharma literature.
Tánlín has traditionally been considered a disciple of Bodhidharma, but it is more likely that he was a student of Huìkě, who
in turn was a student of Bodhidharma.[5]
Later accounts
Dàoxuān
In the 7th-century historical work Further Biographies of Eminent Monks (續高僧傳 Xù gāosēng zhuàn),
Dàoxuān (道宣; 596-667) possibly drew on Tanlin's preface as a basic source, but made several
significant additions:
This Japanese scroll calligraphy of
Bodhidharma reads “Zen points directly to the human heart, see into your nature and
become
Buddha”. It was created by
Hakuin Ekaku
(
1685 to
1768)
Firstly, Dàoxuān adds more detail concerning Bodhidharma's origins, writing that he was "of South Indian Brahman stock" (南天竺婆羅門種 nán tiānzhú póluómén zhŏng).[6]
Secondly, more detail is provided concerning Bodhidharma's journeys. Tanlin's original is imprecise about Bodhidharma's
travels, saying only that he "crossed distant mountains and seas" before arriving in Wei. Dàoxuān's account, however, implies "a
specific itinerary":[7] "He first arrived at
Nan-yüeh during the Sung period. From there he turned north and came to the Kingdom of
Wei".[6] This implies that Bodhidharma had
travelled to China by sea, and that he had crossed over the Yangtze River.
Thirdly, Dàoxuān suggests a date for the Bodhidharma's arrival in China. He writes that Bodhidharma makes landfall in the time
of the Song, thus making his arrival no later than the time of the Song's fall to the
Southern Qi Dynasty in 479.[7]
Finally, Dàoxuān provides information concerning Bodhidharma's death. Bodhidharma, he writes, died at Luo River Beach, where
he was interred by his disciple Huike, possibly in a cave. According to Dàoxuān's chronology,
Bodhidharma's death must have occurred prior to 534, the date of the Northern Wei Dynasty's fall, because Huike subsequently
leaves Luoyang for Ye. Furthermore, the use of the Luo River Beach as an execution grounds
suggests that Bodhidharma may have died in the mass executions at
Heyin in 528. Supporting this possibility is a report in the Taishō shinshū
daizōkyō stating that a Buddhist monk was among the victims at Heyin.[8]
Epitaph for Fărú
The idea of a patriarchal lineage in Zen dates back to the epitaph for Fărú (法如 638–689), a disciple of the 5th patriarch Hóngrĕn (弘忍 601–674), which gives a line of
descent identifying Bodhidharma as the first patriarch.[9]
Yǒngjiā Xuánjué
According to the Song of Enlightenment (證道歌 Zhèngdào gē) by Yǒngjiā Xuánjué (665-713)[10]—one of the chief disciples of Huìnéng, sixth
Patriarch of Zen—Bodhidharma was the 28th Patriarch of Buddhism in a line of descent from Śākyamuni Buddha via his disciple Mahākāśyapa, and the first
Patriarch of Zen:
Mahakashyapa was the first, leading the line of transmission;
Twenty-eight Fathers followed him in the West;
The Lamp was then brought over the sea to this country;
And Bodhidharma became the First Father here
His mantle, as we all know, passed over six Fathers,
And by them many minds came to see the Light.[11]
The idea of a line of descent from Śākyamuni Buddha is the basis for the distinctive lineage tradition of the Zen school.
Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall
In the Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall (祖堂集 Zǔtángjí) of 952, the elements of the traditional Bodhidharma
story are in place.
Bodhidharma is said to have been a disciple of Prajñātāra,[12] thus establishing the latter as the 27th patriarch in India.
After a three-year journey, Bodhidharma reaches China in 527[12] during the Liang Dynasty (as opposed to the Song
period of the 5th century, as in Dàoxuān).
The Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall includes Bodhidharma's encounter with Emperor Wu, which was first recorded around 758 in the appendix to a text by Shen-hui (神會), a
disciple of Huineng.[13]
Finally, as opposed to Daoxuan's figure of "over 150 years,"[14] the Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall states that Bodhidharma died at the age of
150. He was then buried on Mount Xiong'er (熊耳山 Xióng'ĕr Shān) to the west of Luoyang. However, three years after the
burial, in the Pamir Mountains, Sòngyún (宋雲)—an official of one of the later Wei
kingdoms—encountered Bodhidharma, who claimed to be returning to India and was carrying a single sandal. Bodhidharma predicted
the death of Songyun's ruler, a prediction which was borne out upon the latter's return. Bodhidharma's tomb was then opened, and
only a single sandal was found inside.
Insofar as, according to the Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall, Bodhidharma left the Liang court in 527 and relocated
to Mount Song near Luoyang and the Shaolin
Monastery, where he "[faced] a wall for nine years, not speaking for the entire time",[15] his date of death can have been no earlier than 536. Moreover, his
encounter with the Wei official indicates a date of death no later than 554, three years before the fall of the last Wei kingdom.
Dàoyuán
Subsequent to the Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall, the only dated addition to the biography of Bodhidharma is in the
1004 Jingde Records of the Transmission of the Lamp (景德傳燈錄 Jĭngdé chuándēng lù), by Dàoyuán (道原), where it is
stated that Bodhidharma's original name had been Bodhitāra but had been changed by his master Prajñātāra.[16]
After Death
Soon after his death, someone supposedly witnessed Bodhidharma walking back towards India barefoot and with a single shoe in
hand. His grave was later exhumed, and according to legend, the only thing found in it was the shoe he left behind.
For nine years he had remained and nobody knew him;
Carrying a shoe in hand he went home quietly, without ceremony.[17]
Modern scholarship
Bodhidharma's origins
Though Dàoxuān wrote that Bodhidharma was "of South Indian Brahman stock," Broughton (1999:2) notes that Bodhidharma's royal pedigree implies that he was of the Kshatriya warrior caste. Mahajan
(1972:705–707) argued that the Pallava dynasty was Brahmin by origin but Kshatriya by
profession, and Zvelebil (1987) proposed that Bodhidharma was born a prince of the Pallava
dynasty in their capital of Kanchipuram.
However, according to Broughton (1999:54), the Iranian Buddhist master of Yáng Xuànzhī's
early eyewitness account making his way to North China via the Silk Road is more likely than the South Indian master of later
accounts making his way by sea.[18] Incidentally, the
Pallavas themselves are often considered as a dynasty of Iranian origin.[19]
Bodhidharma's name
Faure (1986) notes that "Bodhidharma’s name appears sometimes truncated as Bodhi, or more
often as Dharma (Ta-mo). In the first case, it may be confused with another of his rivals, Bodhiruci."
Practice and teaching
Meditation
Tanlin, in the preface to Two Entrances and Four Acts, and Daoxuan, in the Further Biographies of Eminent Monks,
mention a practice of Bodhidharma's termed "wall-gazing" (壁觀 bìguān). Both Tanlin[20] and Daoxuan[21] associate this "wall-gazing" with "quieting [the] mind"[22] (安心 ān xīn). Elsewhere, Daoxuan also states: "The merits of Mahāyāna
wall-gazing are the highest".[23] These
are the first mentions in the historical record of what may be a type of meditation
being ascribed to Bodhidharma.
Bodhidharma seated in meditation before a wall; ink painting by
Sesshū
In the Two Entrances and Four Acts, traditionally attributed to Bodhidharma, the term "wall-gazing" also appears:
Those who turn from delusion back to reality, who meditate on walls, the absence of self and other, the oneness of
mortal and sage, and who remain unmoved even by scriptures are in complete and unspoken agreement with reason.[24]
Exactly what sort of practice Bodhidharma's "wall-gazing" was remains uncertain. Nearly all accounts have treated it either as
an undefined variety of meditation, as Daoxuan and Dumoulin,[23] or as a variety of seated meditation akin to the zazen (坐禪;
Chinese: zuòchán) that later became a defining characteristic of Zen; the latter interpretation is particularly common
among those working from a Zen standpoint.[25] There have
also, however, been interpretations of "wall-gazing" as a non-meditative phenomenon.[26]
The Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra
The Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra, one of the Mahāyāna
Buddhist sūtras, is a highly "difficult and obscure" text[27] whose basic thrust is to emphasize "the inner enlightenment that does away with all duality and is raised above all distinctions".[28] It is among the first and most important texts in the Yogācāra, or "Consciousness-only", school of Mahāyāna
Buddhism.[29]
One of the recurrent emphases in the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra is a lack of reliance on words to effectively express
reality:
If, Mahamati, you say that because of the reality of words the objects are, this talk lacks in sense. Words are not known in
all the Buddha-lands; words, Mahamati, are an artificial creation. In some Buddha-lands ideas are indicated by looking steadily,
in others by gestures, in still others by a frown, by the movement of the eyes, by laughing, by yawning, or by the clearing of
the throat, or by recollection, or by trembling.[30]
In contrast to the ineffectiveness of words, the sūtra instead stresses the importance of the "self-realization" that is
"attained by noble wisdom"[31] and occurs "when one has
an insight into reality as it is":[32] "The truth is the
state of self-realisation and is beyond categories of discrimination".[33] The sūtra goes on to outline the ultimate effects of an experience of self-realization:
[The Bodhisattva] will become thoroughly conversant with the noble truth of
self-realisation, will become a perfect master of his own mind, will conduct himself without effort, will be like a gem
reflecting a variety of colours, will be able to assume the body of transformation, will be able to enter into the subtle minds
of all beings, and, because of his firm belief in the truth of Mind-only, will, by gradually ascending the stages, become
established in Buddhahood.[34]
One of the fundamental Zen texts attributed to Bodhidharma is a four-line stanza whose first two verses echo the
Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra's disdain for words and whose second two verses stress the importance of the insight into reality
achieved through "self-realization":
A special transmission outside the scriptures,
Not founded upon words and letters;
By pointing directly to [one's] mind
It lets one see into [one's own true] nature and [thus] attain Buddhahood.[35]
The stanza, in fact, is not Bodhidharma's, but rather dates to the year 1108.[36] Nonetheless, there are earlier texts which explicitly associate Bodhidharma with the Laṅkāvatāra
Sūtra. Daoxuan, for example, in a late recension of his biography of Bodhidharma's successor Huike, has the sūtra as a basic
and important element of the teachings passed down by Bodhidharma:
In the beginning Dhyana Master Bodhidharma took the four-roll Laṅkā Sūtra, handed it over to Huike, and said: "When I
examine the land of China, it is clear that there is only this sutra. If you rely on it to practice, you will be able to cross
over the world."[37]
Another early text, the Record of the Masters and Disciples of the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra (楞伽師資記 Léngqié shīzī jì) of
Jìngjué (淨覺; 683–750), also mentions Bodhidharma in relation to this text. Jingjue's account also makes explicit mention of
"sitting meditation", or zazen:[38]
For all those who sat in meditation, Master Bodhi[dharma] also offered expositions of the main portions of the Laṅkāvatāra
Sūtra, which are collected in a volume of twelve or thirteen pages,[39] [...] bearing the title of Teaching of [Bodhi-]Dharma.[40]
In other early texts, the school that would later become known as Zen is sometimes referred to as the "Laṅkāvatāra school"
(楞伽宗 Léngqié zōng).[41]
Portrayals of Bodhidharma
Throughout Buddhist art, Bodhidharma is depicted as a rather ill-tempered, profusely
bearded and wide-eyed barbarian. He is described as "The Blue-Eyed Barbarian" 藍眼睛的野人 (lán
yǎnjīngde yěrén) in Chinese texts.[42]
The Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall (952) identifies Bodhidharma as the 28th Patriarch of Buddhism in an
uninterrupted line that extends all the way back to the Buddha himself. D.T. Suzuki contends that Zen's growth in popularity during the 7th and 8th centuries attracted
criticism that it had "no authorized records of its direct transmission from the founder of Buddhism" and that Zen historians
made Bodhidharma the 28th patriarch of Buddhism in response to such attacks.[43]
Legends
Bodhidharma and the martial arts?
The Yi Jin Jing credits Shaolin Kung Fu
to Bodhidharma, which would make him an important influence on the martial arts of
Asia in general. However, both the attribution of Shaolin Kung Fu to Bodhidharma and the
authenticity of the Yi Jin Jing itself have been discredited by historians including Tang Hao, Xu Zhen and Matsuda Ryuchi.
This argument is summarized by modern historian Lin Boyuan in his Zhongguo wushu shi as follows:
As for the “Yi Jin Jing” (Muscle Change Classic), a spurious text attributed to Bodhidharma and included in the legend of his
transmitting martial arts at the temple, it was written in the Ming dynasty, in 1624 CE, by the Daoist priest Zining of Mt.
Tiantai, and falsely attributed to Bodhidharma. Forged prefaces, attributed to the Tang general Li Jing and the Southern Song
general Niu Gao were written. They say that, after Bodhidharma faced the wall for nine years at Shaolin temple, he left behind an
iron chest; when the monks opened this chest they found the two books “Xi Sui Jing” (Marrow Washing Classic) and “Yi Jin Jing”
within. The first book was taken by his disciple Huike, and disappeared; as for the second, “the monks selfishly coveted it,
practicing the skills therein, falling into heterodox ways, and losing the correct purpose of cultivating the Real. The Shaolin
monks have made some fame for themselves through their fighting skill; this is all due to having obtained this manuscript.” Based
on this, Bodhidharma was claimed to be the ancestor of Shaolin martial arts. This manuscript is full of errors, absurdities and
fantastic claims; it cannot be taken as a legitimate source.[44]
The oldest available copy was published in 1827[45]
and the composition of the text itself has been dated to 1624.[44] Even then, the association of Bodhidharma with martial arts only becomes widespread as a result
of the 1904–1907 serialization of the novel The Travels of Lao Ts'an in Illustrated Fiction Magazine.[46]
Huiguang and Sengchou were expert in the martial arts before they became two of the very first Shaolin monks—years before the
arrival of Bodhidharma.[47] The Taishō Tripiṭaka documents Sengchou's skill with the tin staff.
Bodhidharma is associated with the idea that spiritual, intellectual and physical excellence are an indivisible whole
necessary for enlightenment. Such an approach to enlightenment ultimately proved highly attractive to the Samurai class in Japan, who made Zen their way of
life, following their encounter with the martial-arts-oriented Zen Rinzai School
introduced to Japan by Eisai in the 12th century. Yet in some versions of his legend, Bodhidharma's focus was so single-minded during his nine
years of meditation that his legs atrophied.[48]
Encounter with Emperor Liang
According to the Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall, in 527 during the Liang
Dynasty, Bodhidharma, the first Patriarch of Zen, visited the Emperor Wu, a
fervent patron of Buddhism. The emperor asked Bodhidharma, "What is the highest meaning of noble truth?" Bodhidharma answered,
"There is no noble truth." The emperor then asked Bodhidharma, "Who is standing before me?" Bodhidharma answered, "I don't know."
The emperor then asked Bodhidharma, "How much karmic merit have I earned by ordaining Buddhist monks, building monasteries,
having sutras copied, and commissioning Buddha images?" Bodhidharma answered, "None."[49]
From then on, the emperor refused to listen to whatever Bodhidharma had to say. Although Bodhidharma came from
India to China to become the first patriarch of China, the emperor refused to recognize him. Since he refused to believe in what Bodhidharma told him, he
practically missed his chance to come face to face with someone who was important to Buddhism.
Bodhidharma knew that he would face difficulty in the near future, but had the emperor been able to leave the throne and yield it
to someone else, he could have avoided his fate of starving to death.
According to the teaching, Emperor Wu's past life was as a bhikshu. While he cultivated in
the mountains, a monkey would always steal and eat the things he planted for food, as well as the fruit in the trees. One day, he
was able to trap the monkey in a cave and blocked the entrance of the cave with rocks, hoping to teach the monkey a lesson.
However, after two days, the bhikshu found that the monkey had died of starvation.
Supposedly, that monkey was reincarnated into Hou Jing of the Northern Wei Dynasty, who led his soldiers to attack Nanjing. After
Nanjing was taken, the emperor was held in captivity in the palace and was not provided with any food, and was left to starve to
death. Though Bodhidharma wanted to save him and brought forth a compassionate mind toward him, the emperor failed to recognize
him, so there was nothing Bodhidharma could do. Thus, Bodhidharma had no choice but to leave Emperor Wu to die and went into
meditation in a cave for nine years.
This encounter would later form the basis of the first kōan of the collection The
Blue Cliff Record.
Nine years of gazing at a wall
Failing to make a favorable impression in Southern China, Bodhidharma is said to have retreated to the northern Chinese kingdom of Wei to a cave near the Shaolin
Monastery where he "faced a wall for nine years, not speaking for the entire time".[15]
In one version of the story, he is said to have fallen asleep seven years into his nine years of wall-gazing. Becoming angry
with himself, he cut off his eyelids to prevent it from happening again.[50] According to the legend, as his eyelids hit the floor the first Tea plants sprang up; and thereafter Tea would provide a stimulant to
help keep students of Zen awake during meditation.[51]
In another version of the story, after the nine years, Bodhidharma “passed away, seated upright”.[15]
In another, Bodhidharma disappeared, leaving behind the Yi Jin Jing.[44]
-
In yet another version of the legend, Bodhidharma's legs atrophied after nine years of sitting,[48] which is why Japanese Bodhidharma dolls have no legs.
Teaching
In one legend, Bodhidharma refused to resume teaching until his would-be student, Hui-k'o, who
had kept vigil for weeks in the deep snow outside of the monastery, cut off his own right arm to demonstrate sincerity.[52]
The lineage of Bodhidharma and his disciples
In the Two Entrances and Four Acts and the Continued Biographies of Eminent Monks, Daoyu and Huike are the only
explicitly identified disciples of Bodhidharma. The Jingde Records of the Transmission of the Lamp gives Bodhidharma four
disciples who, in increasing order of understanding, are Daofu, who attains Bodhidharma's skin; the nun Dharani,[53] who attains Bodhidharma's flesh; Daoyu, who attains
Bodhidharma's bone; and Huike, who attains Bodhidharma's marrow.
Works attributed to Bodhidharma
- The Outline of Practice or Two Entrances
- The Bloodstream Sutra
- The Breakthrough Sutra
- The Wake-Up Sutra
See also
Notes
- ^ Broughton 1999:54–55
- ^ Broughton 1999:138
- ^ Broughton 1999:8
- ^ Broughton 1999:9
- ^ Broughton 1999:53
- ^ a b Dumoulin 2005:87
- ^ a b Broughton 1999:56
- ^ Broughton 1999:139
- ^ Dumoulin 1993:37
- ^
Chang, Chung-Yuan (1967), "Ch'an Buddhism: Logical and Illogical", Philosophy East and West 17:
37-49, <http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-PHIL/ew27057.htm>.
- ^ Suzuki 1948:50
- ^ a b Broughton 1999:2
- ^
McRae, John R. (2000), "The Antecedents of Encounter Dialogue in Chinese Ch'an Buddhism", in Heine, Steven & Wright, Dale S.,
The Kōan: Texts and Contexts in Zen Buddhism, Oxford University Press.
- ^ Dumoulin
2005:88
- ^ a b c Lin 1996:182
- ^ Broughton 1999:119
- ^ Watts 1958:32
- ^ Broughton 1999:54 "There is,
however, nothing implausible about an early sixth-century Iranian Buddhist master who made his way to North China via the fabled
Silk Road. This scenario is, in fact, more likely than a South Indian master who made his way by the sea route."
- ^ "India, The Ancient Past", Burjor Avari, p186
- ^ Broughton (1999:9, 66) translates 壁觀
as "wall-examining".
- ^ Taishō Shinshū Daizōkyō, Vol. 50, No. 2060, p. 551c 06(02)
- ^ Broughton 1999:9
- ^ a b Dumoulin 2005:96
- ^ Red Pine (1989:3), emphasis
added.
Broughton (1999:9) offers a more literal rendering of the key phrase 凝住壁觀 (níngzhù
bìguān) as "[who] in a coagulated state abides in wall-examining".
- ^ e.g., Keizan, Denkoroku;
Child, Simon, "In
the Spirit of Chan".
- ^ viz. Broughton (1999:67–68),
where a Tibetan Buddhist interpretation of "wall-gazing" as being akin to
Dzogchen is offered.
- ^ Suzuki 1932, Preface
- ^ Kohn 1991:125
- ^ Sutton 1991:1
- ^ Suzuki 1932, XLII
- ^ Suzuki 1932, XI(a)
- ^ Suzuki 1932, XVI
- ^ Suzuki 1932, IX
- ^ Suzuki 1932, VIII
- ^ Dumoulin
2005:85
- ^ Dumoulin 2005:102
- ^ Broughton 1999:62
- ^ Taishō Shinshū Daizōkyō, Vol. 85, No. 2837, p. 1285b 17(05)
- ^ The "volume" referred to is the Two Entrances and Four Acts.
- ^ Dumoulin 2005:89
- ^ Dumoulin 2005:52
- ^ Soothill and Hodous
- ^ Suzuki 1949:168
- ^ a b c Lin 1996:183
- ^ Matsuda Ryuchi 松田隆智 (1986). Zhōngguó wǔshù shǐlüè 中國武術史略 (in Chinese). Taipei 臺北: Danqing
tushu.
- ^
Henning, Stanley (1994), "Ignorance, Legend and Taijiquan", Journal of the Chenstyle Taijiquan Research Association
of Hawaii 2 (3): 1-7, <http://seinenkai.com/articles/henning/il&t.pdf>.
- ^ Canzonieri, Salvatore (February–March
1998). "History of Chinese Martial Arts: Jin Dynasty to the Period of Disunity". Han Wei Wushu 3
(9).
- ^ a b Dumoulin 2005:86
- ^ Broughton 1999:2–3
- ^ Maguire 2001:58
- ^ Watts, Alan W. (1962).
The Way of Zen. Great Britain: Pelican books, 106. ISBN 0140205470.
- ^ Maguire 2001:58
Dàoxuān records that Huìkě's arm was cut off by bandits (Broughton 1999:62).
- ^ In the Jingde Records of the Transmission of the Lamp, Dharani
repeats the words said by the nun Yuanji in the Two Entrances and Four Acts, possibly identifying the two with each other
(Broughton 1999:132).
References
-
Avari, Burjor (2007), India: The Ancient Past, New York: Routledge.
-
Broughton, Jeffrey L. (1999), The Bodhidharma Anthology: The Earliest Records of Zen,
Berkeley: University of California Press, ISBN 0-520-21972-4
-
Dumoulin, Heinrich (2005), Zen Buddhism: A History, vol. 1: India and China,
Bloomington, IN: World Wisdom, ISBN 0-941532-89-5
-
Dumoulin, Heinrich (1993), "Early Chinese Zen
Reexamined: A Supplement to Zen Buddhism: A History", Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 20 (1):
31–53, ISSN 0304-1042, <http://www.nanzan-u.ac.jp/SHUBUNKEN/publications/jjrs/pdf/387.pdf>.
-
Faure, Bernard (1986), "Bodhidharma
as Textual and Religious Paradigm", History of Religions 25 (3): 187-198,
<http://www.thezensite.com/ZenEssays/Philosophical/Bodhidharma_as_Paradigm.html>
- Ferguson, Andrew. Zen's Chinese Heritage: The Masters and their Teachings. Somerville: Wisdom Publications, 2000. ISBN
0-86171-163-7.
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Kohn, Michael H., ed. (1991), The Shambhala Dictionary of Buddhism and Zen, Boston:
Shambhala.
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Lin, Boyuan (1996), Zhōngguó wǔshù shǐ 中國武術史, Taipei 臺北: Wǔzhōu chūbǎnshè
五洲出版社
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Maguire, Jack (2001), Essential Buddhism, New York: Pocket Books, ISBN
0-671-04188-6
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Mahajan, Vidya Dhar (1972), Ancient India, S. Chand & Co. OCLC 474621
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Red Pine, ed. (1989), The Zen Teaching of Bodhidharma: A Bilingual Edition, New York: North
Point Press, ISBN 0-86547-399-4.
- Soothill, William Edward and Hodous, Lewis. A Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms. London: RoutledgeCurzon,
1995.
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Sutton, Florin Giripescu (1991), Existence and Enlightenment in the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra: A
Study in the Ontology and Epistemology of the Yogācāra School of Mahāyāna Buddhism, Albany: State University of New York
Press, ISBN 0-7914-0172-3.
-
Suzuki, D.T., ed. (1932), The Lankavatara Sutra: A Mahayana
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Suzuki, D.T. (1948), Manual of
Zen Buddhism, <http://consciouslivingfoundation.org/ebooks/new2/ManualOfZenBuddhism-manzen.pdf>.
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Suzuki, D.T. (1949), Essays in Zen Buddhism,
New York: Grove Press, ISBN 0-8021-5118-3
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Watts, Alan (1958), The Spirit of Zen, New York: Grove
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Zvelebil, Kamil V. (1987), "The Sound of the One Hand", Journal of the American Oriental Society 107 (1):
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External links
Preceded by
Prajnatara |
Buddhist Patriarch |
Succeeded by
Title Extinct |
Preceded by
New Creation |
Chinese Ch'an Patriarch |
Succeeded by
Hui Ke |
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