Revelation

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The Book of the Revelation of John, usually referred to simply as Revelation or the Book of Revelation, is the last book of the New Testament. It is also called the Apocalypse of John. Apocalypse, from the Greek, is a synonym for "Revelation," but also from it comes the name for the type of literature; an "apocalypse" is an work of apocalyptic literature. John's is the only book in the Canon that is wholly composed of apocalyptic literature.^[1]

Revelation is a cryptic document which has been interpreted in many ways. Most of the interpretations fall into one or more of the following categories: the Historicist, which sees in Revelation a broad view of history; the Preterist, in which Revelation mostly refers to the events of the apostolic era (first century); the Futurist, which believes that Revelation describes future events; and the Idealist, or Symbolic, which holds that Revelation is purely symbolic, an allegory of the spiritual path and the ongoing struggle between good and evil. These approaches are by no means mutually exclusive, and can be (and usually are) used in combination with each other.

Composition

Revelation has been included in the canon of the New Testament since the earliest times. Nevertheless, due to its cryptic nature, it has always been a subject of debate. The fourth century church historian, Eusebius, placed it in a list of questionable New Testament documents, and more recently, such luminaries as Martin Luther have questioned its usefulness. Nevertheless, it has not only endured, but captured the imagination of generations of Bible students, both professionals and laypeople alike. This section will discuss its history, authorship, and some of the controversies surrounding it.

Title

The last document of the New Testament is commonly known today as the Book of Revelation, or simply, Revelation. The title found on some of the earliest manuscripts is "The Revelation of John" (Ἀποκάλυψις Ἰωάννου), and the most common title found on later manuscripts is "The Revelation of the Theologian" (Ἀποκάλυψις τοῦ Θεολόγου.) From this latter noun comes the title in the Authorized King James Version, the Revelation of Saint John the Divine, divine being a seventeenth century word for theologian.^[2]

The Greek word, ἀποκάλυψις (apokalypsis), sometimes rendered directly from the Greek as apocalypse, is usually translated in English as revelation, since the literal meaning of the Greek word is "the act of revealing or unveiling".^[3] Some later manuscripts add Evangelist or Apostle to the title.^[4] The opening words are: "The revelation (Ἀποκάλυψις) of Jesus Christ". The title, therefore, is also the first word of the book.

Introduction

Revelation is addressed to "the seven churches in the province of Asia" (1:4). ("Asia" was a Roman province in what is now western Turkey.) Its epistolary introduction and conclusion are remarkably similar to those found in the letters of Paul (1:4-8, 22:21). John, in his vision, is instructed to write the letter by "one like a son of man, wearing an ankle-length robe, with a gold sash around his chest,"^[5](1:11–3:22). This person is usually interpreted as the Messiah.

The second vision, which makes up the rest of the book (chapters 4–22),^[6] opens with these words: "After these things, I looked and saw a door standing open in heaven. And the first voice which I heard was like a trumpet speaking with me, saying, 'Come up here, and I will show you things which must take place after this.'"^{[Rev 4:1]}

In the coming chapters, the following events are predicted: a time of great tribulation; the battle of Armageddon; the second coming of the Messiah; the Millennium (a thousand year reign of peace); the imprisonment of Satan (portrayed as a dragon); the release of Satan after the Millennium; Satan's eternal banishment to the "lake of fire"; the Last Judgment, also known as the Great White Throne Judgment; the end of the world; the creation of a "new heaven and earth," with the holy city, the New Jerusalem.

Authorship

Traditional View of Authorship

The author of Revelation identifies himself several times as "John".^[7] The author also states that he was on Patmos when he received his first vision.^[8] As a result, the author of Revelation is referred to as John of Patmos. John explicitly addresses Revelation to seven churches of Asia Minor: Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamos, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea.^[9]

The traditional view holds that John the Apostle—considered to have written the Gospel and the epistles of John—was exiled on Patmos in the Aegean archipelago during the reign of Domitian, and there wrote Revelation. Those in favour of a single common author point to similarities between the Gospel and Revelation. For example, both works are soteriological and possess a high Christology, stressing Jesus' divine side as opposed to the human side stressed by the Synoptic Gospels. In the Gospel of John and in Revelation, Jesus is referred to as "the Word of God" (Ὁ λόγος τοῦ Θεοῦ), although the context in Revelation is very different from John. The Word in Rev 19:13 is involved in judgement but in John 1:1, the image is used to speak of a role in creation and redemption.^[10] Explanations of the differences between John's works by proponents of the single-author view include factoring in underlying motifs and purposes, authorial target audience, the author's collaboration with or utilization of different scribes and the advanced age of John the Apostle when he wrote Revelation.

A natural reading of the text would indicate that, while many of the elements in the book are clearly symbolic, John is writing literally as he sees the vision. An angel warns John that neither he nor others should alter the document, so as to maintain the textual integrity of the book. ^{[Rev 22:18-19][11]}

Early Views of Authorship

A number of Church Fathers weighed in on the authorship of Revelation. Justin Martyr (100-165 A.D.) avows his belief in its apostolic origin. Irenaeus (c. 115-202) assumes it as a conceded point. At the end of the second century, it is accepted at Antioch by Theophilus (died c. 183), and in Africa by Tertullian (c. 160-220). At the beginning of the third century, it is adopted by Clement of Alexandria and by Origen of Alexandria, later by Methodius, Cyprian, and Lactantius. Dionysius of Alexandria (c. 200-265) rejected it upon doctrinal rather than critical grounds. Eusebius (ca. 263–339) was inclined to class the Apocalypse with the spurious books.^[4] Jerome (347-420) relegated it to second class.^[4] Most canons included it, but some, especially in the Eastern Church, rejected it. It is not included in the Peshitta (an early New Testament in Aramaic).^[4]

Modern Views of Authorship

While many in modern times still feel that the evidence supports the traditional view of authorship, others question the traditional position. Some modern scholarship^[12] suggests that John the Apostle, John the Evangelist and John of Patmos were three separate individuals. More recent methods of scholarship, such as textual criticism, have been influential in this conclusion. Differences in style between the Gospel of John, the epistles of John, and the Revelation are seen by some scholars as indicating three separate authors. For example, the author of Revelation identifies himself as "John" several times, but the author of the Gospel of John never identifies himself directly (though there is an indirect identification [Jn 21:20-24]). While both works liken Jesus to a lamb, they consistently use different words for lamb when referring to him—the Gospel uses amnos, Revelation uses arnion.^[13] Lastly, the Gospel is written in nearly flawless Greek, but Revelation contains grammatical errors and stylistic abnormalities which indicate its author may not have been as familiar with the Greek language as the Gospel's author.^[14]

Most commentators accept Revelation as the unified text of one author, but this opinion is by no means universal.^[15] The English Biblical scholar, Robert Henry Charles (1855-1931), is one of the dissenting voices. He agreed that Revelation possessed an underlying original structure because the seven beatitudes, which exist unobtrusively in the text, have not been disturbed and that the first of these is right at the beginning (1:3) and the seventh near the end (22:7), Thus, the prologue and epilogue are part of the original.^[16] However, he reasoned on internal textual grounds, that the book was edited by someone who spoke no Hebrew and who wished to promote a different theology to John's. As a result, everything after 20:3, he claims, has been left in a haphazard state with no attempt to structure it logically, as John would surely have done. Furthermore, he says, the story of the defeat of the ten kingdoms has been deleted and replaced by 19:9-10.^[17] John's theology of chastity has been replaced by the editor's theology of outright celibacy, which accounts for 14:4 'they which were not defiled with women: for they are virgins', and which makes little sense when John's true church is symbolised as a bride of the Lamb. Most importantly, the editor has completely rewritten John's theology of the Millennium which is "emptied of all significance".^[18] In the edited version, the martyrs when raised to glory, are "sitting on thrones in splendid idleness for a full one thousand years" when John's intention had been to show "the Millennial Reign is one of arduous spiritual toil" in which Christ and his martyrs evangelise the whole world, Jewish and Gentile.

It may be that Charles overstates his case, however. The suggested replacement of text in ch. 19 is purely hypothetical. Revelation's characterization of the church as the "bride of the Lamb" is clearly metaphorical, and without sexual implications. The claim that the Millennium has been emptied of all significance simply is not true - it is of huge significance in Revelation. Finally, there is no evangelization in the Millennium, for Christ rules a world populated by the resurrected people of God: "the rest of the dead did not live again until the thousand years were finished."^{[Rev 20:5]}

It has also been contended that the core verses of the book, in general chapters 4 through 22, are surviving records of the prophecies of John the Baptist.^[19] In this view, the Lamb of God references and other hallmarks of Revelation are linked to what is known of John the Baptist, though it must be confessed that very little is known of him.

Canonical history

Due to its obscure nature, Martin Luther initially considered Revelation to be "neither apostolic nor prophetic" and stated that "Christ is neither taught nor known in it",^[20] and placed it in his Antilegomena, i.e his list of questionable documents. (He developed a more positive view of Revelation as he grew older, however.) John Calvin believed the book to be canonical, yet it was the only New Testament book on which he did not write a commentary.^[21] In the fourth century, Gregory of Nazianzus and other bishops argued against including Revelation in the New Testament canon, chiefly because of the difficulties of interpreting it and the risk of abuse. Christians in Syria also rejected it because Montanism, a second century sect which was deemed to be heretical by the mainstream church, relied heavily on it.^[22] Ultimately it was included in the canon though it remains the only book of the New Testament that is not read within the Divine Liturgy of the Eastern Orthodox Church. Notwithstanding these objections, the Revelation provides a logical conclusion, not just to the New Testament, but to the Bible as a whole, and there is a continuous tradition dating back to the second century which supports the authenticity of the document, and which indicates that it was included within the, as yet unformalized, canon of the early church.

Dating

According to early tradition, this book was composed near the end of Domitian's reign, around the year 95. Others contend for an earlier date, 68 or 69, in the reign of Nero or shortly thereafter.^[23] The majority of modern scholars also use these two dates.^[24] Those who are in favour of the later date appeal to the earliest external testimony, that of the Christian father Irenaeus, who stated that he had received information relative to this book from those who had seen John face to face. Irenaeus writes, "For [John's vision] was seen no very long time since, but almost in our day, towards the end of Domitian's reign."^[25] Domitian, according to Eusebius of Caesarea, started the persecution referred to in the book. However, recent scholars dispute that the book is situated in a time of ongoing persecution and have also doubted the reality of a large-scale Domitian persecution, though there was a persecution of the Christians in Rome during Domitian's era.^[26]

The earlier date is based on an interpretation of the book's internal evidence, as no external testimony exists earlier than Irenaeus, who, as already noted, wrote that the persecution took place in the time of Domitian.^[27] Also, the earliest extant manuscript evidence of Revelation (P98) is likewise dated no earlier than the late second century.^[28] This internal evidence is typically centered around the preterist interpretation of ch. 17, where the seven heads of the "beast" are regarded as the succession of Roman emperors up to the time of the fall of Jerusalem in 70 A.D.^[29] However, in this earlier hypothesis, there are problems aligning the chapter with the Roman emperors. For example, to identify Nero as the "fifth head," or the one, according to Revelation, who was power at the time of writing, would call for an exclusion of Julius Caesar as the first emperor ("head"), leaving Augustus as the first, in contradiction of ancient sources which acknowledge Julius Caesar as the first emperor.^[30] So this theory remains unsubstantiated.

Some interpreters (Paul Touilleux, Albert Gelin, André Feuillet) reconcile the two dates by placing the publication under Domitian and the visions themselves under Vespasian. Various editors would have a hand in the formation of the document, according to these theories. But when all is said and done, the words of Irenaeus, as one who lived within a generation of John, are still the weightiest evidence we have regarding the date of authorship, and he places the book towards the end of Domitian's reign, which lasted from 81-96 A.D. But even skeptics generally agree that Revelation was written in the second half of the first century.

Revelation as Literature

Whatever Revelation may become in the fertile fields of interpretive minds, it is first and foremost a piece of literature, and it should be understood in literary terms. This does not exclude other approaches, it merely underscores them. A number of literary elements can be identified in Revelation, such as structure, plot, major characters, and unifying themes.

Structure

In terms of structure, the book is built around four successive groups of seven: the messages to the seven churches, the seven seal judgments, the seven trumpet judgments, and finally, the seven bowl judgments. There are also introductory and concluding passages, and additional passages which are inserted between the main structural elements in various places throughout the book (see Outline of Revelation, below).

The repeated occurrence of the number seven contributes to the overall unity of Revelation. While several numbers stand out -- 3, 4, 7, 10, 12, 24, 144, 1000 -- seven appears to have a special significance. There are seven churches symbolized by seven lampstands (1:20); the churches have seven angels symbolized by seven stars (1:20); there are seven spirits before the throne of God, symbolized by seven lamps (4:5), and also by seven horns and seven eyes (5:6); the judgment scroll has seven seals (5:1) with a corresponding set of seven “seal judgments”; the seventh seal unleashes seven “trumpet judgments,” which are heralded by seven angels (8:1-2); the seventh trumpet unleashes seven “bowl judgments,” where the bowls of God's wrath are poured out by seven angels (15:1); there are seven mysterious thunders about which John is not permitted to say anything (10:3); 7,000 people are killed in an earthquake (11:13); the dragon has seven heads and seven diadems on his heads (12:3); and the beast from the sea has seven heads (13:1).

One half of seven, 3½, is also a conspicuous number in Revelation: two witnesses are given power to prophesy 1,260 days, or exactly 3½ years, according to the Hebrew year of 360 days (11:3); the witnesses are then killed, and their dead bodies lie in the streets of Jerusalem for 3½ days (11:9); the “woman clothed with the sun” is protected in the wilderness for 1,260 days, or 3½ years (12:6); Gentiles tread the holy city underfoot for 42 months, or 3½ years (11:2); and the beast is given authority to continue for 42 months, or 3½ years (13:5).

Plot

We can identify a plot (i.e. a general storyline) in Revelation. The story proper is in chapters 4-22, but chapters 1-3 lay the groundwork. These first three chapters consist of a brief introduction followed by seven separate messages conveyed by the author to seven churches. The larger themes of the book as a whole – judgment, salvation, the coming of the Messiah, etc. – are exposed in these messages, each of which is tailor-made for the church in question. Each message assesses how that particular church is doing, and tells it what change, if any, needs to be made. In a nutshell, the churches are each presented with a choice: to be faithful or not to be faithful. The potential consequences of their choices are graphically illustrated in the story proper, in ch. 4-22. The messages to the churches also serve as a device to convey a message to a wider audience, for each church’s message ends with: “He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches” (2:7, etc.).

The plot of the story proper (ch. 4-22) is driven by a powerful conflict between the forces, both earthly and spiritual, of good and evil. Expressed in the simplest terms (for a more detailed outline, see below), it is as follows: 1) there is a time of great tribulation on the Earth which combines natural disasters with war on an unprecedented scale; 2) the “Lamb” saves his people from the tribulation, destroys the wicked, and ushers in an age of peace; 3) after the age of peace, there is a second, brief time of trouble which results in the permanent banishment of the wicked; 4) the present Earth is destroyed and the faithful are taken to a new, heavenly world, to live forever in joy and peace. (It is the job of theologians and other critics to interpret these details. This section is only concerned with the text itself.)

Characters

Revelation has an array of colorful characters. The protagonist, known throughout most of the book as the “Lamb,” is a hero of magnificent proportions. Almost as impressive is the antagonist, Satan, an archvillain who is also known as the “dragon.” There are various other characters, both good and bad. These include the two witnesses, the archangel Michael, the beast from the land, the beast from the sea, the woman clothed with the sun, the great harlot (Babylon the Great), and the angel who leads John through the vision, among others. Some of these appear to be actual persons (whether on the spiritual or the physical plane), while others appear to be purely symbolic.

Outline of Revelation

Taken at face value, the events of Revelation appear to be in chronological order, but some interpreters feel that the events of the book need not be, and should not be, understood chronologically. Others are more interested in the symbolism and prefer to focus on the larger themes, downplaying the significance of the events themselves. The following outline does not attempt to interpret Revelation, but presents the details of the book in the manner, and in the order, that they appear. Some words (e.g. “locusts”) are placed in parentheses to indicate that their description in the text does not match our normal conception of them. Each of the seven churches is listed with the opening words of the message to that church.

1) Introduction

John identifies himself, his addressees, and the divine source of his visions. (1:1-8)

2) Messages to the Seven Asian Churches

Description of the “Son of Man” as John sees him in his vision. (1:9-20)

Ephesus: “I know your works, your labor, your patience, and that you cannot bear those who are evil.” (2:1-7)

Smyrna: “I know your works, tribulation, and poverty – but you are rich.” (2:8-11)

Pergamos: “I know your works, and where you live, where Satan’s throne is.” (2:12-17)

Thyatira: “I know your works, love, service, faith, and your patience.” (2:18-29)

Sardis: “I know your works, that you have a name that your are alive, but you are dead.” (3:1-6)

Philadelphia: “I know your works. I have set before you an open door, and no one can shut it.” (3:7-13)

Laodicea: “I know your works, that you are neither cold nor hot... Because you are lukewarm, and neither cold nor hot, I will spew you out of my mouth.” (3:14-22)

3) The Throne of God

John comes before the throne of God. (4:1-3)

John sees twenty-four elders and four “living creatures” praising God. (4:4-11)

Only the “Lamb” is found worthy to take the judgment scroll from God and break the seals. (5:1-7)

The creatures in heaven give praise. (5:8-14)

4) The Lamb Breaks the Seals

First Seal: One who is both a king and a conqueror rides forth on a white horse. (6:1-2)

Second Seal: A rider on a red horse brings war. (6:3-4)

Third Seal: A rider on a black horse brings famine. (6:5-6)

Fourth Seal: A rider on a pale horse brings death. (6:7-8)

Fifth Seal: The martyrs in heaven cry out for vengeance. (6:9-11)

Sixth Seal: There are earthquakes and natural disasters. (6:12-17)

144,000 of “all the tribes of Israel” are “sealed.” (7:1-8)

A great multitude is saved from the Tribulation. (7:9-17)

Seventh Seal: The breaking of the seventh seal begins another series: the seven trumpets. (8:1-5)

5) The Angels Sound the Trumpets

First Trumpet: Hail and fire destroy a third of the trees and grass. (8:6-7)

Second Trumpet: A third of the oceans are destroyed. (8:8-9)

Third Trumpet: A third of the rivers and springs are poisoned. (8:10-11)

Fourth Trumpet: A third of the sky is darkened. (8:12-13)

Fifth Trumpet: A plague of “locusts” terrorize the Earth for five months. (9:1-12)

Sixth Trumpet: An army of 200 million kills a third of Earth’s population. (9:13-21)

John eats a little book which is sweet in his mouth, but bitter in his stomach. (10:1-11)

Two witnesses prophesy for 3½ years, are killed, and come back to life. (11:1-14)

Seventh Trumpet: The ark of the covenant appears in the heavenly temple. (11:15-19)

John sees a woman clothed with the sun, the moon, and the stars. (12:1-6)

Satan is cast down to the Earth. (12:7-12)

The dragon persecutes the people of God. (12:13-17)

The beast from the sea makes war with the people of God. (13:1-10)

The beast from the land forces people to worship the beast from the sea. (13:11-18)

John sees 144,000, “having his Father’s name written on their foreheads,” with the Lamb on Mount Zion. (14:1-5)

Three angels proclaim judgment. (14:6-13)

The angels reap the harvest. (14:14-20)

6) The Angels Pour Out Their Bowls on the Earth

Seven angels are given golden bowls containing of the wrath of God. (15:1-8)

First Bowl: A “foul and loathsome sore” afflicts the followers of the beast. (16:1-2)

Second Bowl: The sea turns to blood and everything within it dies. (16:3)

Third Bowl: All fresh water turns to blood. (16:4-7)

Fourth Bowl: The sun scorches the Earth with intense heat. (16:8-9)

Fifth Bowl: There is total darkness and great pain. (16:10-11)

Sixth Bowl: Preparations are made for the final battle between the forces of good and evil. (16:12-16)

Seventh Bowl: A great earthquake: “every island fled away and the mountains were not found.” (16:17-21)

7) Babylon the Great

The great harlot who sits on many waters: Babylon the Great. (17:1-18)

Babylon is destroyed. (18:1-8)

The people of the earth mourn Babylon's destruction. (18:9-19)

The permanence of Babylon’s destruction. (18:20-24)

8) The Marriage Supper of the Lamb

A great multitude praises God. (19:1-6)

The marriage supper of the Lamb. (19:7-10)

9) The Millennium

The beast and the false prophet are cast into the lake of fire. (19:11-21)

Satan is imprisoned in the bottomless pit for a thousand years. (20:1-3)

The people of God reign with Christ for a thousand years. (20:4-6)

10) After the Thousand Years

Satan is released and makes war against the people of God, but is defeated. (20:7-9)

Satan is cast into the lake of fire. (20:10)

The Last Judgment: the wicked, along with death and Hades, are cast into the lake of fire. (20:11-15)

11) The New Heaven and Earth

The Earth is replaced with a new, heavenly world where there is no more suffering or death. (21:1-8)

The people of God dwell with Christ in the New Jerusalem. (21:2-8)

The New Jerusalem described. (21:9-27)

The tree of life (from Eden) reappears. The curse is ended. (22:1-5)

12) Conclusion

Christ’s reassurance that he will come. Final admonitions. (22:6-21)

.

Interpretations

Revelation has a wide variety of interpretations, ranging from the simple message that we should have faith that God will prevail (symbolic interpretation), to complex end time scenarios (futurist interpretation),^[31][32] to the views of critics who deny any spiritual value to Revelation at all^[33], some even going so far as to suggest that its message is morally repugnant.^[34] The following are a sampling of the various views.

Preterist view

Preterism holds that the contents of Revelation constitute a prophecy of events that were fulfilled in the first century.^[35] Preterist interpretations generally identify either Jerusalem or the Roman Empire as the persecutor of the Church, "Babylon", the "Mother of Harlots", etc. They see Armageddon as God's judgement on the Jews, carried out by the Roman army, which is identified as "the beast". It sees Revelation being fulfilled in 70, thereby bringing the full presence of God to dwell with all humanity. Some preterists see the second half of Revelation as changing focus to Rome, its persecution of Christians, and the fall of the Roman Empire. It also holds that the Emperor Nero was possibly the number of the beast mentioned in the book as his name equals 666 in Hebrew,^[36] if using the Greek spelling of Nero's name (Neron Caesar), but using the Hebrew symbols with their assigned numeric values (an ancient method known as gematria). However, a few ancient manuscripts of the Revelation say the number is 616, fifty less than the more well known numeral. A possible method to this problem lies in early translation. In the assumption that the Revelation was meant to be distributed among the Early Christians, it could very well be assumed that occasionally someone may have used the Latin spelling of Nero's name (Nero Caesar), so the total value of the gematria would be 616.^[37][38]

Futurist view

The futurist view assigns all or most of the prophecy to the future, shortly before the second coming; especially when interpreted in conjunction with Daniel, Isaiah 2:11-22, 1 Thessalonians 4:15-5:11, and other eschatological sections of the bible.

Futurist interpretations generally predict a resurrection of the dead and a rapture of the living, wherein all true Christians and those who have not reached an age of accountability are gathered to Christ at the time God's kingdom comes on earth. They also believe a tribulation will occur - a seven year period of time when believers will experience worldwide persecution and martyrdom, and be purified and strengthened by it. Futurists differ on when believers will be raptured, but there are three primary views: 1) before the tribulation; 2) near or at the midpoint of the tribulation; or 3) at the end of the tribulation. There is also a fourth view of multiple raptures throughout the tribulation, but this view does not have a mainstream following.

Pretribulationists believe that all Christians then alive will be taken up to meet Christ before the Tribulation begins. In this manner, Christians are "kept" from the Tribulation, much as Noah was removed before God judged the antediluvian world.

Midtribulationists believe that the rapture of the faithful will occur approximately halfway through the Tribulation, after it begins but before the worst part of it occurs. Some midtribulationists, particularly those holding to a "pre-wrath rapture" of the church, believe that God's wrath is poured out during a "Great Tribulation" that is limited to the last 3½ years of the Tribulation, after believers have been caught up to Christ.

Post-tribulationists believe that Christians will not be taken up into Heaven, but will be received into the Kingdom at the end of the Tribulation. (Pretribulationist Tim LaHaye admits a post-tribulation rapture is the closest of the three views to that held by the early church.)

All three views hold that Christians will return with Christ at the end of the Tribulation. Proponents of all three views also generally portray Israel as unwittingly signing a seven year peace treaty with the Antichrist, which initiates the seven year Tribulation. Many also tend to view the Antichrist as head of a revived Roman Empire, but the geographic location of this empire is unknown. Hal Lindsey suggests that this revived Roman Empire will be centered in western Europe, with Rome as its capital. Tim LaHaye promotes the belief that Babylon will be the capital of a worldwide empire. Joel Richardson and Walid Shoebat have both recently written books proposing a revived eastern Roman Empire, which will fall with the boundaries of the Ottoman Empire. (Istanbul also has seven hills, was a capital of the Roman Empire and is known as the Golden Horn - notable given the eschatological references to the "Little Horn"Daniel 7:8,8:9.)

There is also a variant futuristic view that the Tribulation can occur in any generation, meaning Satan always has an antichrist in the wings and there is always a nation-state that can become the revived Roman Empire. This variant view is developed by Angela Hunt in her fictional work, The Immortal.

The futurist view was first proposed by two Catholic writers, Manuel Lacunza and Ribera. Lacunza wrote under the pen name "Ben-Ezra", and his work was banned by the Catholic Church. It has grown in popularity in the 19th and 20th centuries, so that today it is probably most readily recognized. Books about the "rapture" by authors like Hal Lindsey, and the more recent Left Behind novels (by Jerry Jenkins and Tim LaHaye) and movies, have done much to popularize this school of thought.

The Rastafarians hold to a historicist view of the book of Revelation, relating it both to 20th-century events such as the crowning of Ethiopian Emperor Haile Selassie and the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, and also to future events such as the second coming of Selassie on the day of judgment.

The various views on tribulation are actually a subset of theological interpretations on the Millennium, mentioned in Revelation 20. There are three main interpretations: Premillennialism, Amillennialism, and Postmillennialism.

Premillennialism believes that Christ will return to the earth, bind Satan, and reign for a literal thousand years on earth with Jerusalem as his capital. Thus Christ returns before ("pre-") the thousand years mentioned in chapter 20. There are generally two subclasses of Premillennialism: Dispensational and Historic. Some form of premillennialism is thought to be the oldest millennial view in church history.^[39] Papias, believed to be a disciple of the Apostle John, was a premillenialist, according to Eusebius. Also Justin Martyr and Irenaeus expressed belief in premillennialism in their writings.

Amillennialism, the traditional view for Roman Catholicism, believes that the thousand years mentioned are not ("a-") a literal thousand years, but is figurative for what is now the church age, usually, the time between Christ's first ascension and second coming. This view is often associated with Augustine of Hippo. Amillennialists differ on the time frame of the millennium. Some say it started with Pentecost, others say it started with the fulfillment of Jesus' prophecy regarding the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem (70), and other starting points have also been proposed. Whether this eschatology is the result of caesaropapism, which may have also been the reason that premillennialism was condemned, is sharply disputed.

Postmillennialism believes that Christ will return after ("post-") a literal/figurative thousand years, in which the world will have essentially become a Christendom. This view was held by Jonathan Edwards.

Eastern Orthodox view

Orthodox icon of the Apocalypse of St. John (16th century).

Eastern Orthodoxy treats the text as simultaneously describing contemporaneous events and as prophecy of events to come, for which the contemporaneous events were a form of foreshadow. It rejects attempts to determine, before the fact, if the events of Revelation are occurring by mapping them onto present-day events, taking to heart the Scriptural warning against those who proclaim "He is here!" prematurely. Instead, the book is seen as a warning to be spiritually and morally ready for the end times, whenever they may come ("as a thief in the night"), but they will come at the time of God's choosing, not something that can be precipitated nor trivially deduced by mortals.^[40]

Book of Revelation is the only book of the New Testament that is not read during services by the Eastern Orthodox Church. In the Coptic Orthodox Church (which is not in communion with the Eastern Orthodox church but is liturgically similar), the whole Book of Revelation is read during Apocalypse Night or Bright Saturday (the eve of the Resurrection).

Paschal liturgical view

This view, which has found expression among both Catholic and Protestant theologians, considers the liturgical worship, particularly the Easter rites, of early Christianity as background and context for understanding the Book of Revelation's structure and significance. This perspective is explained in The Paschal Liturgy and the Apocalypse (new edition, 2004) by Massey H. Shepherd, an Episcopal scholar, and in Scott Hahn's The Lamb's Supper: The Mass as Heaven on Earth (1999), in which he states that Revelation in form is structured after creation, fall, judgment and redemption. Those who hold this view say that the Temple’s destruction (A.D. 70) had a profound effect on the Jewish people, not only in Jerusalem but among the Greek-speaking Jews of the Mediterranean.^[41]. They believe The Book of Revelation provides insight into the early Eucharist, saying that it is the new Temple worship in the New Heaven and Earth. The idea of the Eucharist as a foretaste of the heavenly banquet is also explored by British Methodist Geoffrey Wainwright in his book Eucharist and Eschatology (Oxford University Press, 1980).

Esoteric view

The esoterist views Revelation as bearing multiple levels of meaning, the lowest being the literal or "dead-letter." Those who are instructed in esoteric knowledge enter gradually into more subtle levels of understanding of the text. They see the book as delivering both a series of warnings for humanity and a detailed account of internal, spiritual processes of the individual soul.

The Gnostic Kabbalist believes that Revelation (like Genesis) is a very profound book of Kabbalistic symbolism. This view is held by teachers such as H.P. Blavatsky, Eliphas Levi, Rudolf Steiner.

Christian Gnostics, however, are unlikely to be attracted to the teaching of Revelation because the doctrine of salvation through the sacrificed Lamb, which is central to Revelation, is repugnant to Gnostics. Christian Gnostics "believed in the Forgiveness of Sins, but in no vicarious sacrifice for sin ... they accepted Christ in the full realisation of the word; his life, not his death, was the key-note of their doctrine and their practice."^[42]

A zodiacal interpretation of Genesis and Revelation (as alpha and omega) is given in Anna P. Johnson Tau: The key of heaven^[43] in which it is claimed the astrology practised in Eden is the missing wisdom that would make prophecy and modern science completely compatible. Anna Johnson claimed that the two witnesses of Revelation are the male and female principles, that the norms of western society are wholly perverse, and that death could be overcome if the vagina was no longer 'prostituted' to sexual lust. In her theory, the human aging process and biblical animal sacrifice have both been needless human cringing before a fire-god demiurge. Creation and evolution can coexist because evolution needs much shorter time periods if punctuated by periodic calamities brought about by the change of aeon which cause huge jumps in world development. It is one of these huge jumps which will make it possible for the elect to survive the passing away of the old earth.^[44]

Radical discipleship view

The radical discipleship view asserts that the Book of Revelation is best understood as a handbook for radical discipleship; i.e. how to remain faithful to the spirit and teachings of Jesus and avoid simply assimilating to surrounding society. In this view, the primary agenda of the book is to expose the worldly powers as impostors which seek to oppose the ways of God. The chief temptation for Christians in the first century, and today, is to fail to hold fast to the non-violent teachings and example of Jesus and instead be lured into unquestioning adoption of worldly, national or cultural values, imperialism being the most dangerous and insidious. This perspective (closely related to liberation theology) draws on the approach of radical Bible scholars such as Ched Myers, William Stringfellow, Richard Horsley, Daniel Berrigan, Wes Howard-Brook,^[45] and Joerg Reiger ^[46]

Paschal spiritual view

There is also a perspective that holds that the book of Revelation describes a spiritual battle that took place while Jesus was on the cross and in the grave. Some Primitive Baptists believe this to be the intended meaning.^{[citation needed]}

Aesthetic and literary view

Many literary writers and theorists have contributed to a wide range of views about the origins and purpose of the Book of Revelation. Some of these writers have no connection with established Christian faiths but, nevertheless, found in Revelation a source of inspiration. Revelation has been approached from Hindu philosophy and Jewish Midrash. Others have pointed to aspects of composition which have been ignored such as the similarities of prophetic inspiration to modern poetic inspiration, or the parallels with Greek drama. In recent years theories have arisen which concentrate upon how readers and texts interact to create meaning and are less interested in what the original author intended.

Charles Cutler Torrey taught semitic languages at Yale. His lasting contribution has been to show how much more meaningful prophets, such as the scribe of Revelation, are when treated as poets first and foremost. He felt this was a point often lost sight of because most English bibles render everything in prose.^[47] Poetry was also the reason John never directly quoted the older prophets. Had he done so, he would have had to use their (Hebrew) poetry whereas he wanted to write his own. Torrey insisted Revelation had originally been written in Aramaic.^[48] This was why the surviving Greek translation was written in such a strange idiom. It was a literal translation that had to comply with the warning at Revelation 22:18 that the text must not be corrupted in any way. According to Torrey, the story is that "The Fourth Gospel was brought to Ephesus by a Christian fugitive from Palestine soon after the middle of the first century. It was written in Aramaic." Later, the Ephesians claimed this fugitive had actually been the beloved disciple himself. Subsequently, this John was banished by Nero and died on Patmos after writing Revelation. Torrey argued that until 80CE, when Christians were expelled from the synagogues,^[49] the Christian message was always first heard in the synagogue and, for cultural reasons, the evangelist would have spoken in Aramaic, else "he would have had no hearing."^[50] Torrey showed how the three major songs in Revelation (the new song, the song of Moses and the Lamb and the chorus at 19: 6-8) each fall naturally into four regular metrical lines plus a coda.^[51] Other dramatic moments in Revelation, such as 6: 16 where the terrified people cry out to be hidden, behave in a similar way.^[52]

Christina Rossetti was a Victorian poet who believed the sensual excitement of the natural world found its meaningful purpose in death and in God.^[53] Her The Face of the Deep is a meditation upon the Apocalypse. In her view, what Revelation has to teach is patience.^[54] Patience is the closest to perfection the human condition allows.^[55] Her book, which is largely written in prose, frequently breaks into poetry or jubilation, much like Revelation itself. The relevance of John's visions^[56] belongs to Christians of all times as a continuous present meditation. Such matters are eternal and outside of normal human reckoning. "That winter which will be the death of Time has no promise of termination. Winter that returns not to spring ... - who can bear it?"^[57] She dealt deftly with the vengeful aspects of John's message. "A few are charged to do judgment; everyone without exception is charged to show mercy."^[58] Her conclusion is that Christians should see John as "representative of all his brethren" so they should "hope as he hoped, love as he loved."^[59]

Recently, aesthetic and literary modes of interpretation have developed, which focus on Revelation as a work of art and imagination, viewing the imagery as symbolic depictions of timeless truths and the victory of good over evil. Elisabeth Schuessler Fiorenza wrote Revelation: Vision of a just world from the viewpoint of rhetoric.^[60] Accordingly, Revelation's meaning is partially determined by the way John goes about saying things, partially by the context in which readers receive the message and partially by its appeal to something beyond logic. It is Professor Schuessler Fiorenza's view that Revelation has particular relevance today as a liberating message to disadvantaged groups. John's book is a vision of a just world, not a vengeful threat of world-destruction. Her view that Revelation's message is not gender-based has caused dissent. She says we are to look behind the symbols rather than make a fetish out of them. Tina Pippin puts an opposing view:^[61] that John writes "horror literature" and "the misogyny which underlies the narrative is extreme". Professor Schuessler Fiorenza would seem to be saying John's book is more like science fiction; it does not foretell the future but uses present-day concepts to show how contemporary reality could be very different.

D. H. Lawrence took an opposing, pessimistic view of Revelation in the final book he wrote, Apocalypse.^[62] He saw the language which Revelation used as being bleak and destructive; a 'death-product'. Instead, he wanted to champion a public-spirited individualism (which he identified with the historical Jesus supplemented by an ill-defined cosmic consciousness) against its two natural enemies. One of these he called "the sovereignty of the intellect"^[63] which he saw in a technology-based totalitarian society. The other enemy he styled "vulgarity"^[64] and that was what he found in Revelation. "It is very nice if you are poor and not humble ... to bring your enemies down to utter destruction, while you yourself rise up to grandeur. And nowhere does this happen so splendiferously than in Revelation."^[65] His specific aesthetic objections to Revelation were that its imagery was unnatural and that phrases like "the wrath of the Lamb" were "ridiculous". He saw Revelation as comprising two discordant halves. In the first, there was a scheme of cosmic renewal "great Chaldean sky-spaces" which he quite liked. Then the book hinged around the birth of the baby messiah. After that, "flamboyant hate and simple lust ... for the end of the world." Lawrence coined the term "Patmossers" to describe those Christians who could only be happy in paradise if they knew their enemies were suffering hell.

James Morgan Pryse was an esoteric gnostic who saw Revelation as a western version of the Hindu theory of the Chakra. He began his work, "The purpose of this book is to show that the Apocalypse is a manual of spiritual development and not, as conventionally interpreted, a cryptic history or prophecy".^[66] On this theory, Revelation is a 'pilgrim's progress' of individual spiritual development. That individual, starting out as "I, John", goes through the difficult stages of development as "the sacrificed Lamb", and reaches his goal as "Iesous the Christos". It assumes the impulse to begin such a journey comes from a spark inside the individual, not from any book. Mr Pryse does not merely attempt to explain what John's language is about but seeks to show that such a message could only be conveyed in the language the book used. Paradoxically, on this view, Revelation was written to conceal; making the heart of the people fat. Such a path of spiritual development is difficult, hence the wealth of negative and destructive imagery employed and the appeal to Jesus to "come quickly" so that a process which would otherwise take many lifetimes can be completed using intuition and enlightenment. Those who 'die the death' are simply being put back into the pool of life to try again.

Whilst such diverse theories have not yet commanded widespread acceptance, they may throw light upon passages of Revelation which present difficulties. For example, the imagery surrounding the woman clothed with the sun (Rev 12:1) may be easier to understand if one looks a little outside of Christian theology. As Christopher Rowland has said, "there are always going to be loose threads which refuse to be woven into the fabric as a whole. The presence of the threads which stubbornly refuse to be incorporated into the neat tapestry of our world-view does not usually totally undermine that view."^[67]

The historical-critical view

The historical-critical method treats Revelation as a text and attempts to understand Revelation in its first century historical context within the genre of Jewish and Christian apocalyptic literature.

This approach considers the text as an address to seven historical communities in Asia Minor. Under this view, assertions that "the time is near" are to be taken literally by those communities. Consequently the work is viewed as a warning not to conform to contemporary Greco-Roman society which John "unveils" as beastly, demonic and subject to divine judgment. There is further information on these topics in the entries on higher criticism and apocalyptic literature.

The acceptance of Revelation into the canon is itself the result of a historical process, essentially no different from the career of other texts. The eventual exclusion of other contemporary apocalyptic literature from the canon may throw light on the unfolding historical processes of what was officially considered orthodox, what was heterodox, what was even heretical. Interpretation of meanings and imagery are anchored in what the historical author intended and what his contemporary audience inferred; a message to Christians not to assimilate into the Roman imperial culture was John's central message. Thus, his letter (written in the apocalyptic genre) is pastoral in nature, and the symbolism of Revelation is to be understood entirely within its historical, literary and social context. Critics study the conventions of apocalyptic literature and events of the first century to make sense of what the author may have intended.

During a discussion about Revelation on 23 August 2006, Pope Benedict XVI remarked: "The seer of Patmos, identified with the apostle, is granted a series of visions meant to reassure the Christians of Asia amid the persecutions and trials of the end of the first century."^[68]

Criticism

Nineteenth-century agnostic Robert G. Ingersoll branded Revelation "the insanest of all books".^[69] Thomas Jefferson omitted it along with most of the Biblical canon, from the Jefferson Bible, and wrote that at one time, he considered it as "merely the ravings of a maniac, no more worthy nor capable of explanation than the incoherences of our own nightly dreams." ^[70] Martin Luther changed his perspective on Revelation over time. In the preface to the German translation of Revelation that he composed in 1522, he said that he did not consider the book prophetic or apostolic, since "Christ is neither taught nor known in it." But in the completely new preface that he composed in 1530, he reversed his position and concluded that Christ was central to the book. He concluded, as we see here in this book, that through and beyond all plagues, beasts, and evil angels, Christ is nonetheless with the saints and wins the final victory."^[71] John Calvin "had grave doubts about its value."^[72]

Old Testament origins of Revelation

There is much in Revelation which harnesses ancient sources. Although the Old Testament provides the largest reservoir for such sources, it is not the only one. For example, Howard-Brook and Gwyther^[73] regard the Book of Enoch (1 Enoch) as an equally significant but contextually different source. "Enoch's journey has no close parallel in the Hebrew scriptures."

Until recently, academics showed little interest in this topic.^[74] But this was not the case with popular writers from non-conforming backgrounds. They liked to intersperse their text of Revelation with the prophecy they thought was being promised fulfilment. For example, an anonymous Scottish commentary of 1871^[75] prefaces Revelation 4 with the Little Apocalypse of Mark 13, places Malachi 4:5 (Behold I will send you Elijah the prophet before the coming of the great and dreadful day of the Lord) within Revelation 11, and writes Revelation 12:7 side-by-side with the role of 'the satan' in the Book of Job. The message is that everything in Revelation will happen in its previously appointed time.

Steve Moyise^[76] uses the index of the United Bible Societies' Greek New Testament to show that "Revelation contains more Old Testament allusions than any other New Testament book, but it does not record a single quotation." Perhaps significantly, Revelation chooses different sources than other New Testament books. Revelation concentrates on Isaiah, the Psalms and Ezekiel and neglects, comparatively speaking, the books of the Pentateuch which are the dominant sources for other New Testament writers. Methodological objections have been made to this way of proceeding. Each allusion may not have an equal significance. To counter this, G. K. Beale sought to develop a system that distinguished 'clear', 'probable' and 'possible' allusions. A clear allusion is one with almost the same wording as its source, the same general meaning and which could not reasonably have been drawn from elsewhere. A probable allusion contains an idea which is uniquely traceable to its source. Possible allusions are described as mere echoes of their putative sources.

Yet, with Revelation, the problems might be judged more fundamental than this. John seems to be using his sources in a completely different way to the originals. For example, John borrows the 'new temple' imagery of Ezekiel 40 to 48 but uses it to describe a New Jerusalem which, quite pointedly, no longer needs any temple at all because the new city is now God's own dwelling-place. Ian Boxall^[77] writes that Revelation "is no montage of biblical quotations (that is not John's way) but a wealth of allusions and evocations rewoven into something new and creative." In trying to identify this something new, he argues that Ezekiel provides the 'backbone' for Revelation. He sets out a comparative table listing the chapters of Revelation in sequence then identifying against most of them the structurally corresponding chapter in Ezekiel. The interesting point is that the order is not the same. John, on this theory, rearranges Ezekiel to suit his own purposes.

Some commentators argue that it is these purposes - and not the structure - that really matters. It is the view of G. K. Beale that, however much use John makes of Ezekiel, his ultimate purpose is to present Revelation as a fulfilment of Daniel 7.^[78]

See also

Christianity portal

• Apocalypse
• Apocalypse of John - dated astronomically
• Apocalypse of Peter
• Apocalyptic literature
• Apocalypticism
• Book of Daniel
• Christian Eschatology
• Christian eschatological differences
• Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse
• Horae Apocalypticae
• Number of the Beast
• Second Coming
• Seven seals
• The Beast (Bible)
• The Two Witnesses of Apocalypse
• Textual variants in the Book of Revelation
• Woman of the Apocalypse
• Whore of Babylon
• Apocalypse Revelation

Book references

• The Holy Bible: New Testament: Revelation.

Commentaries

• Aune D.E., Revelation 6-16, WBC, t. 52B, Thomas Nelson Publishers, Nashville 1998.
• Bass, Ralph E., Jr. (2004) Back to the Future: A Study in the Book of Revelation Greenville, SC: Living Hope Press, ISBN 0-9759547-0-9.
• Beale G.K., The Book of Revelation, NIGTC, Grand Rapids – Cambridge 1999. = ISBN 0-8028-2174-X
• Bousset W., Die Offenbarung Johannis, Göttingen 1896⁵, 1906⁶.
• Boxall, Ian, (2006) The Revelation of Saint John (Black's New Testament Commentary) London: Continuum, and Peabody, MA: Hendrickson. ISBN 0-8264-7135-8 U.S. edition: ISBN 1-5656-3202-8
• Boxall, Ian (2002)Revelation: Vision and Insight - An Introduction to the Apocalypse London: SPCK ISBN 0-2810-5362-6
• Brown, Raymond E. (1997-10-03). Introduction to the New Testament. Anchor Bible. ISBN 0-385-24767-2. 
• Ehrman, Bart D. (2004). The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings. New York: Oxford. ISBN 0-19-515462-2. 
• Ford, J. Massyngberde (1975) Revelation, The Anchor Bible, New York: Doubleday ISBN 0-385-00895-3.
• Gentry, Kenneth L., Jr. (1998) Before Jerusalem Fell: Dating the Book of Revelation Powder Springs, GA: American Vision, ISBN 0-915815-43-5.
• Gentry, Kenneth L., Jr. (2002) The Beast of Revelation Powder Springs, GA: American Vision, ISBN 0-915815-41-9.
• Hudson, Gary W. (2006) Revelation: Awakening The Christ Within, Vesica Press, ISBN 0977851729
• Kiddle M., The Revelation of St. John (The Moffat New Testament Commentary), New York – London 1941.
• Lohmeyer E., Die Offenbarung des Johannes, Tübingen 1953.
• Mounce R.H., The Book of Revelation, Michigan 1977¹, 1998².
• Lodowicke Muggleton Works on the Book of Revelation London 2010 ISBN 978-1-907466-24-5
• Prigent P., L’Apocalypse, Paris 1981.
• Müller U.B., Die Offenbarung des Johannes, Güttersloh 1995.
• Roloff J., Die Offenbarung des Johannes, Zürich 1987².
• Samael Aun Weor (2004) [1960]. The Aquarian Message: Gnostic Kabbalah and Tarot in the Apocalypse of St. John. Thelema Press. ISBN 0-9745916-5-3. 
• Hahn, Scott (1999) The Lamb's Supper: Mass as Heaven on Earth, Darton, Longman, Todd, ISBN 0-232-52500-5
• Shepherd, Massey H. (2004) The Paschal Liturgy and the Apocalypse, James Clarke, ISBN 0-227-17005-9
• Stonehouse, Ned B., (c. 1929) The Apocalypse in the Ancient Church. A Study in the History of the New Testament Canon, n.d., Goes: Oosterbaan & Le Cointre. [Major discussion of the controversy surrounding the acceptance/rejection of Revelation into the New Testament canon.]
• Sweet, J. P. M., (1979, Updated 1990) Revelation, London: SCM Press, and Philadelphia: Trinity Press International. ISBN 0-3340-2311-4.
• Wikenhauser A., Offenbarung des Johannes, Regensburg 1947, 1959.
• Witherington III, Ben, (2003) Revelation, The New Cambridge Bible Commentary, New York: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-00068-0.
• Zahn Th., Die Offenbarung des Johannes, t. 1-2, Leipzig 1924-1926.
• Francesco Vitali, Piccolo Dizionario dell'Apocalisse, TAU Editrice, Todi 2008

Footnotes

External links

Wikisource has original text related to this article: Revelation (KJV)

Wikiversity has learning materials about Biblical Studies (NT)#Revelation: Visions of the End

• Early Christian Writings: Apocalypse of John: text, introduction, context
• "Revelation to John." Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
• Apocalypse, Book of - Article from the Catholic Encyclopedia
• Understanding the Book of Revelation - Article by L. Michael White from PBS Frontline program "Apocalypse!"
• "Book of Revelation" in The Antiquity Project
• Jewish Encyclopedia