Boris Godunov

Operas by Modest Mussorgsky
Salammbô (1866) Zhenitba (1868) Boris Godunov (1872) Mlada (1872) Khovanshchina (1880) The Fair at Sorochyntsi (1880)
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Boris Godunov (Russian: Борис Годунов, original orthography Борисъ Годуновъ, Borís Godunóv) is an opera by Modest Mussorgsky (1839-1881). The work was composed between 1868 and 1874 in Saint Petersburg, Russia. It is Mussorgsky's only completed opera and is considered his masterpiece. Its subject is the Russian ruler Boris Godunov, who reigned as Tsar from 1598 to 1605. The libretto was written by the composer, and is based on the drama of the same name by Alexander Pushkin, and on Nikolay Karamzin's History of the Russian State. The composer created two distinct versions. The Original Version of 1869 was not approved for production. Mussorgsky completed a Revised Version in 1872, and this version eventually received its first performance in 1874. The music is written in a uniquely Russian style, drawing on his knowledge of Russian folk music and rejecting the influence of German and Italian opera.

History

Composition history

Note: Dates provided in this article for events taking place in Russia before 1918 are Old Style.

Nikolay Karamzin (1766–1826)

Alexander Pushkin (1799–1837)

Vladimir Stasov (1824–1906)

Vladimir Nikolsky (1836–1883)

By the close of 1868, Mussorgsky had already started and abandoned two important opera projects — the antique, exotic, romantic tragedy Salammbô, written under the influence of Alexander Serov's Judith, and the contemporary, Russian, anti-romantic farce The Marriage, influenced by Alexander Dargomyzhsky's The Stone Guest. Mussorgsky's next project would be a very original and successful synthesis of the opposing styles of these two experiments — the romantic-lyrical style of Salammbô, and the realistic style of The Marriage ^[1].

In the autumn of 1868, Vladimir Nikolsky, a professor of Russian literature and an authority on Pushkin, suggested to Mussorgsky the idea of composing an opera on the subject of Pushkin's drama Boris Godunov.^[2] Boris the play, modelled on Shakespeare's histories^[3], was written in 1825 and published in 1831, but was not approved for performance by the state censors until 1866, almost 30 years after the author's death. Production was permitted on condition that certain scenes were cut.^[4][5] Although enthusiasm for the work was high, at least in literary circles, Mussorgsky faced a seemingly insurmountable obstacle to his plans in that an Imperial ukaz of 1837 forbade the portrayal of Russian Tsars (amended in 1872 to include only Romanov Tsars) in opera.^[6]

Mussorgsky in 1870

When Lyudmila Shestakova, the sister of Mikhail Glinka, learned of Mussorgsky's plans, she presented him with a volume of Pushkin's drama, interleaved with blank pages and rebound, and Mussorgsky began work in October 1868 preparing his own libretto^[7]. Pushkin's drama consists of 25 scenes, written predominantly in blank verse. Mussorgsky adapted the most theatrically effective scenes, often preserving Pushkin's verses, and augmented these with his own lyrics. He was assisted by a study of the monumental History of the Russian State by Karamzin, to whom Pushkin's drama is dedicated.

Mussorgsky worked rapidly, composing first the vocal score in eight months, and completed the full score six months later, at the same time working as a civil servant^[8]. The Original Version was completed by 15 December 1869^[9]. The score was submitted to a committee of the Imperial Theaters in 1870, but was rejected for performance, ostensibly for its lack of conventional prima donna and first tenor roles, but also, it is believed, for its novelty.^[10]

"...Mussorgsky submitted his completed Boris Godunov to the Board of Directors of the Imperial Theatres ... The freshness and originality of the music nonplussed the honorable members of the committee, who reproved the composer, among other things, for the absence of a reasonably important female role."^[11]

—Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov, Chronicle of My Musical Life, 1909

"All his closest friends, including myself, although moved to enthusiasm by the superb dramatic power and genuinely national character of the work, had constantly been pointing out to him that it lacked many essentials; and that despite the beauties with which it teemed, it might be found unsatisfactory in certain respects. For a long time he stood up (as every genuine artist is wont to do) for his creation, the fruit of his inspiration and meditations. He yielded only after Boris had been rejected, the management finding that it contained too many choruses and ensembles, whereas individual characters had too little to do. This rejection proved very beneficial to Boris."^[12]

—Vladimir Stasov

Meanwhile, Pushkin's drama (16 of the published 24 scenes) finally received its first performance in 1870 at the Mariinsky Theatre, four years in advance of the premiere of the opera in the same venue, and using the same scene designs (by M. Shishkov) that would be recycled in the opera.^[4][5]

Mussorgsky began recasting and expanding Boris in 1871, adding three scenes (the two Sandomir scenes and the Kromï Scene), cutting one (the Scene at the Cathedral of Vasiliy the Blessed), and recomposing another (the Terem Scene). The modifications resulted in the addition of an important female role (Marina Mnishek), the expansion of existing female roles (additional songs for the Hostess, Fyodor, and the Nurse), and the expansion of the role of the Pretender. The Revised Version was finished 23 June 1872, and submitted to the Imperial Theaters in the autumn.

Mussorgsky's friends took matters into their own hands, arranging the performance of three scenes (the Inn and both Sandomir scenes) at the Mariinsky Theatre on 5 February 1873. The response of the public and critics was enthusiastic:

"The success was enormous and complete; never, within my memory, had such ovations been given to a composer at the Mariinsky."^[13]

—César Cui, Sankt-Peterburgskie Vedomosti, 1873

This triumph paved the way for the first performance of the opera, which took place on 27 January 1874. The Mariinsky Theatre was sold out, and the performance was a great success with the public. Mussorgsky had to take some 30 curtain calls; students sang choruses from the opera in the street. This time, however, the critical reaction was exceedingly hostile^[14] [see Critical Reception in this article for details].

Initial performances of Boris Godunov featured significant cuts. The entire Cell Scene was cut from the first performance, and there were substantial cuts to the 3rd and 4th Acts. How much Mussorgsky cooperated in making the cuts is not known with accuracy. After protracted difficulties in obtaining the production of his opera, he was compliant with the demands of the conductor Nápravník in ruthlessly excising large sections and even entire scenes from the work, and went so far as to defend these mutilations to his own supporters. Later performances tended to be even more heavily cut, including the removal of the entire Novodevichiy, Cell, and Kromï scenes.

"Presently cuts were made in the opera, the splendid scene 'Near Kromï' was omitted. Some two years later, the Lord knows why, productions of the opera ceased altogether, although it had enjoyed uninterrupted success, and the performances under Petrov and, after his death, by F. I. Stravinsky, Platonova, and Komissarzhevsky had been excellent. There were rumors afloat that the opera had displeased the Imperial family; there was gossip that its subject was unpleasant to the censors; the result was that the opera was stricken from the repertory."^[15]

—Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov, Chronicle of My Musical Life

Performance history

Eduard Nápravník conducted the premiere of Boris Godunov (1874). ^[16] The Czech Nápravník would spend more than 40 years in the service of Russian music as chief conductor of the Imperial Mariinsky Theatre.^[17] In Rimsky-Korsakov's memoirs, Chronicle of My Musical Life, the composer praises his keen ear, his ability to detect errors, and his overall technique, but faults him for his interpretational inflexibility and insensitivity, and, most of all, for his habit of making sweeping cuts.

Note: Dates provided in this article for events taking place in Russia before 1918 are Old Style.

Performances of Excerpts

• The Cathedral Square Scene (Coronation Scene) was performed on 5 February 1872, by the Russian Music Society in Saint Petersburg, conducted by Eduard Nápravník.^[18]
• The Polonaise from Act III was performed on 3 April 1872, at the Free School of Music in Saint Petersburg, conducted by Mily Balakirev.^[19]
• Three scenes from the opera – the Inn Scene, Scene in Marina's Boudoir, and Scene in the Garden of Mniszech's Castle – were performed on 5 February 1873, at the Mariinsky Theatre, Saint Petersburg, conducted by Eduard Nápravník.^[20] The cast was as follows:^[21]

Hostess – Darya Leonova (mezzo-soprano)

Pretender – Fyodor Komissarzhevsky (tenor)

Varlaam – Osip Petrov (bass)

Misail – Vasily Vasilyev, "Vasilyev II" (tenor)

Police Officer – Mikhail Sariotti (bass)

Marina – Yuliya Platonova (soprano)

Rangoni – Josef Paleček (baritone)

Old Polish Noble – Feliks Krzesiński (dancer)

Saint Petersburg Premiere (World Premiere)

• Date: 27 January 1874
• Place: Mariinsky Theatre, Saint Petersburg, Russia
• Conductor: Eduard Nápravník
• Producer: Gennady Kondratyev
• Set Designers: Matvey Shishkov, Mikhail Bocharov

Moscow Premiere

• Date: 16 December 1888
• Place: Bolshoy Theater, Moscow
• Conductor: Ippolit Al'tani
• Set Designer: Karl Valts (Waltz)

Original Interpreters

Ivan Melnikov Tsar Boris 1874

Fyodor Komissarzhevsky The Pretender 1873

Yuliya Platonova Marina Mniszech 1873

Dyuzhikov and Petrov Misail and Varlaam 1873

Subsequent Performances

The suppressed Cell Scene was finally performed at a concert, arranged by Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov, of the Free School of Music on 16 January 1879, in the presence of Mussorgsky.^[23] The performers were the bass Vladimir Vasilyev ("Vasilyev I") as Pimen, and tenor Vasiliy Vasilyev ("Vasilyev II") as the Pretender.^[24][25]

Boris Godunov was performed 21 times during the composer's lifetime, and 5 times after his death (in 1881) before being withdrawn from the repertory on 8 November 1882.

The St. Basil's Scene was not performed until 18 January 1927, when the revision by Mikhail Ippolitov-Ivanov, commissioned by the Bolshoy Theatre to accompany the Rimsky-Korsakov edition, was presented. The performance was directed by Ariy Pazovskiy. The role of the Yuródivïy was sung by tenor Ivan Kozlovskiy, and that of Boris by bass Leonid Savranskiy.

Important Premieres

^a First performance outside Russia
^b In English

Publication history

Critical reception

César Cui (1835–1918)

Mily Balakirev (1837 – 1910)

Pyotr Tchaikovsky (1840–1893)

Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov (1844–1908)

Russian opera of the early 1870s was dominated by Western European works–mainly Italian. The domestic product was regarded with skepticism and sometimes hostility:

"In those days, splendid performances of Russian operas were given, but the attendance was generally poor. ...to attend the Russian opera was not fashionable. At the first performance of The Maid of Pskov [in 1873] there was a good deal of protest. An energetic campaign was being waged against the 'music of the future'–that is, that of The Mighty Handful."^[26]

—The playwright Tikhonov, in the journal Istorichesky Vestnik, 1898

As the most daring and innovative member of the The Mighty Handful, Mussorgsky frequently became the target of conservative critics and rival composers, and was often derided for his supposedly clumsy and crude musical idiom:

"The general decorativeness and crudity of Mr. Mussorgsky's style, his passion for the brass and percussion instruments, may be considered to have been borrowed from Serov. But never did the crudest works of the model reach the naive coarseness we note in his imitator."^[27]

—German Larosh (Hermann Laroche), an influential critic, in a review of Boris Godunov in the journal Golos, 1874

Reviews of the premiere performance of Boris Godunov were for the most part hostile. Some critics dismissed the work as "noisy", "chaotic", and "a cacophony". Even his friends Mily Balakirev and César Cui, leading members of the Kuchka, minimized his accomplishment. Unable to overlook Mussorgsky's "trespasses against the conventional musical grammar of the time" (Calvocoressi), they failed to recognize the giant step forward in musical and dramatic expression that Boris Godunov represented. Cui betrayed Mussorgsky in a notoriously scathing review of the premiere performance:

"Mr. Mussorgsky is endowed with great and original talent, but Boris is an immature work, superb in parts, feeble in others. Its main defects are in the disjointed recitatives and the disarray of the musical ideas.... These defects are not due to a lack of creative power.... The real trouble is his immaturity, his incapacity for severe self-criticism, his self-satisfaction, and his hasty methods of composition..."^[28]

—César Cui, Sankt-Peterburgskie Vedomosti, 1874

Although he found much to admire (particularly the Inn Scene and the Song of the Parrot), he reproved the composer for a poorly constructed libretto, finding the opera to exhibit a lack of cohesion between scenes. He claimed that Mussorgsky was so deficient in the ability to write instrumental music that he dispensed with composing a prelude, and that he had borrowed the cheap method of characterization by leitmotives from Wagner.^[29]

Other composers were even more censorious:

"I have studied Boris Godunov and The Demon thoroughly. Mussorgsky's music I send to the devil; it is the most vulgar and vile parody on music..."^[30]

—Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, letter to his brother Modest Ilyich Tchaikovsky, 29 October 1874

Of the critics who evaluated the new opera, only one fully recognized Mussorgsky's particular genius and skill:

"Dramatization in music could go no farther. Mussorgsky has proved himself to be a philosopher-musician, capable of expressing with rare truth the mind and soul of his characters. He also has a thorough understanding of musical resources. He is a master of the orchestra; his working-out is fluent, his vocal and chorus parts are beautifully written."

—'Foma Pizzicato', pen-name of the 19-year-old critic V. Baskin, in the journal Peterburgsky Listok, 1874

Although Boris Godunov is usually praised for its originality, for the dramatic power of its choruses, for its sharply delineated characters, and for the powerful psychological portrayal of Tsar Boris, it has received an inordinate amount of criticism for technical shortcomings: weak or faulty harmony, part-writing, and orchestration:

"I worship Boris Godunov and hate it. I worship it for its originality, power, boldness, independence, and beauty. I hate it for its shortcomings, the roughness of its harmonies, the incoherences in the music."^[31]

—Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov

The perception that Boris needed correction due to Mussorgsky's poverty of technique prompted his friend Rimsky-Korsakov to revise it after his death. His edition supplanted the composer's Revised Version of 1872 in Russia, and launched the work in the world's opera houses, remaining the preferred edition for some 75 years [see Versions by Other Hands in this article for more details]. For decades, critics and scholars pressing for the performance of Mussorgsky's own versions fought a losing battle against the conservatism of conductors and singers, who, raised on the plush Rimsky-Korsakov version, found it impossible to adapt to the composer's comparatively unrefined and bleak original scores.

Recently, however, a new appreciation for the rugged individuality of Mussorgsky's style has resulted in increasing performances and recording of his original versions.

"...in the perspective of a hundred years we can see that Musorgsky's score did not really need 'correction' and reorchestration, that in fact the untouched Boris is finer than the revised Boris."^[32]

—Gerald Abraham, musicologist, 1985

For many, Boris Godunov is the greatest of all Russian operas because of its originality, drama, and characterization, regardless of any cosmetic imperfections it may possess.

The drama

• Narrative and dramatic impetus
• Psychological depth of the main characters
• Socio-political subtext

The music

• Skillful musical characterization
• Thematic development
• Key themes borrowed from Salammbô
• Use of leitmotive
• Use of modes
• Speech melody

Versions

Authentic Versions

• Original Version, 1869
• Revised Version, 1872
• Piano Vocal Score, 1874

The Original Version of 1869 is rarely heard. It is distinguished by its fidelity to Pushkins' drama and its almost entirely male cast of soloists. It also adheres more closely to the recitative opera style of The Stone Guest and Marriage. It provides an interesting alternative in the Terem Scene to that of the 1872 version, it contains the dramatic Scene at the Cathedral of Vasiliy the Blessed (St. Basil's Scene), and it contains several passages the composer later cut to fit his revised conception. The terse Terem Scene of the 1869 version and the unrelieved tension of the two subsequent and final scenes make this version more dramatically effective to some critics (e.g. Boris Asafyev).

The Revised Version of 1872 represents a continued drift away from the ideals of Kuchkist realism, which emphasizes naturalistic declamation. This version is longer, is richer in musical and theatrical variety, and presents the title character in a more sympathetic and tragic light in the central Terem Scene. It contains the conventionally operatic Polish act (Act 3), which concludes in a love scene not found in Pushkin's drama, as well as the novel final scene of anarchy (the Kromï Scene), also a departure from Pushkin. This version has made a strong comeback in recent years, and has become the dominant version.

The Piano Vocal Score of 1874 was the first published form of the opera, and is essentially the 1872 version with some minor musical variants and small cuts.

The distribution of scenes in the authentic versions is as follows:

Title page of the Piano Vocal Score, published by V. Bessel and Co., 1874

Compared to the 1869 version, the 1872 version has lost one scene (At the Cathedral of Vasily the Blessed) and gained three (the two Sandomir scenes and the Kromï Scene). The composer initially replaced the Vasily the Blessed Scene with the Kromï Scene. However, on the suggestion of Nikolsky, he transposed the order of the last two scenes, concluding the opera with the Kromï Scene rather than the Faceted Palace Scene. This gives the overall structure of the opera the following symmetrical form:^[33]

People — Boris — Pretender — Boris — Pretender — Boris — People

Later, Rimsky-Korsakov transposed the last two scenes back again in his revision. Critics often mention that in doing so he shifted the focus of the opera from a tragedy of the Russian people to the tragedy of an individual.

Mussorgsky also rewrote the Terem Scene for the 1872 version, modifying the text, adding new songs and plot devices (the parrot and the clock), modifying the psychological treatment of the title character, and virtually recomposing the music of the entire scene.

Other important modifications in the 1872 version are:

• Prologue, Scene 1 (Novodevichiy Scene) – The conclusion is cut (in the Synopsis below, the bracketed portion).
• Act 1, Scene 1 (Cell Scene) – Pimen's narrative of the scene of Dmitriy's murder is cut. In addition, the composer added some offstage choruses of monks.
• Act 1, Scene 2 (Inn Scene) – The 'Song of the Drake' is added (just after the introduction).
• Act 4, Scene 1 (Faceted Palace Scene) – 'Shchelkalov's Address' is cut (just after the introduction).

Editions by Other Hands

• Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, 1896
• Rimsky-Korsakov, 1908
• Emilis Melngailis, 1924
• Dmitri Shostakovich, 1940
• Karol Rathaus, 1952

The Rimsky-Korsakov Version of 1908 has been the most traditional version over the last century, but has recently been almost entirely eclipsed by Mussorgsky's Revised Version (1872). It resembles the Vocal Score of 1874, but the order of the last two scenes is reversed [see Versions by Other Hands in this article for more details].

Performance practice

The Mariinsky Theatre opened in 1860. Boris Godunov received its premiere there in 1874.

A conflation of the 1869 and 1872 versions is often made when staging or recording Boris Godunov. This typically involves choosing the 1872 version and augmenting it with the St. Basil's Scene from the 1869 version. This practice is popular not only because it gives the title character another appearance on stage, but also because in the St. Basil's Scene Boris is challenged by the Yurodivïy, the embodiment of his conscience.^[34] However, because the composer transferred the scene of the Yurodivïy and the urchins from the St. Basil's Scene to the Kromï Scene when revising the opera, restoring the St. Basil's Scene to its former location creates a problem of duplicate scenes, which can be partially solved by cuts. Most performances cut the robbery of the Yurodivïy in the Kromï Scene, but duplicate his lament that ends each scene.

Other examples of conflation:

• The Rimsky-Korsakov Version is often augmented with the Ippolitov-Ivanov reorchestration of the St. Basil's Scene (commissioned by the Bolshoy Theatre, composed in 1926, and first performed in 1927).
• Conductors sometimes elect to restore the cuts the composer himself made in writing the 1872 version [see Versions in this article for more details]. The 1997 Mariinsky Theatre recording under Valery Gergiev is the first and only to present the 1869 Original Version side by side with the 1872 Revised Version, and, it would seem, attempts to set a new standard for musicological authenticity. However, although it possesses many virtues, the production fails to scrupulously separate the two versions, admitting elements of the 1872 version into the 1869 recording, and failing to observe cuts the composer made in the 1872 version. ^[35]

Instrumentation

Mussorgsky Orchestration

• Strings: Violins, Violas, Cellos, Double Basses
• Woodwinds: 2 Flutes, 1 Flute/Piccolo, 1 Oboe, 1 Oboe/English Horn, 2 Clarinets, 2 Bassoons
• Brass: 4 Horns, 2 Trumpets, 3 Trombones, 1 Tuba
• Percussion: Timpani, Bass Drum, Snare Drum, Tambourine, Cymbals, Tam-tam
• Other: Piano, Harp
• On/Offstage: 1 Trumpet, Bells

Rimsky-Korsakov Orchestration:

• Strings: Violins, Violas, Cellos, Double Basses
• Woodwinds: 2 Flutes, 1 Flute/Piccolo, 1 Oboe, 1 Oboe/English Horn, 2 Clarinets, 1 Clarinet/Bass Clarinet, 2 Bassoons
• Brass: 4 Horns, 3 Trumpets, 3 Trombones, 1 Tuba
• Percussion: Timpani, Bass Drum, Snare Drum, Tambourine, Cymbals
• Other: Piano, Harp
• On/Offstage: 1 Trumpet, Bells, Tam-tam

Shostakovich Orchestration:

• Strings: Violins, Violas, Cellos, Double Basses
• Woodwinds: 2 Flutes, 1 Flute/Piccolo, 2 Oboes, 1 English Horn, 2 Clarinets, 1 Clarinet/E-flat clarinet, 1 Bass Clarinet, 2 Bassoons, 1 Bassoon/Contrabassoon
• Brass: 4 Horns, 3 Trumpets, 3 Trombones, 1 Tuba
• Percussion: Timpani, Bass Drum, Snare Drum, Cymbals, Tam-tam, Triangle, Bells, Glockenspiel, Xylophone
• Other: Piano, Harp, Celesta
• On/Offstage: 4 Trumpets, 2 Cornets, 2 Horns, 2 Baritone Horns, 2 Euphoniums, 2 Tubas, Balalaika and Domra ad libitum

Roles

Source: 100 Опер, Издательство «Музыка», Ленинград

Note: "Yuródivïy" is often translated as "Simpleton" or "Idiot". However, "Holy Fool" or "Fool for Christ" are more accurate English equivalents.

Historical basis of the plot

Boris Godunov (1551–1605)

Vasiliy Shuysky (1552–1612)

The Pretender (c.1582–1606)

Marina Mniszech (1588–1614)

An understanding of the drama of Boris Godunov may be facilitated by a basic knowledge of the historical events surrounding the Time of Troubles, the interregnum of relative anarchy following the end of the Ryurik Dynasty (1598) and preceding the Romanov Dynasty (1613). Key events are as follows:

• 1584 – Ivan IV "The Terrible", the first Grand Prince of Muscovy to officially adopt the title Tsar (Caesar), dies. Ivan’s successor is his feeble son Fyodor, now Fyodor I, who cares only for spiritual matters and leaves the affairs of state to his capable brother-in-law, boyar Boris Godunov, now de facto regent.
• 1591 – Ivan’s other son Dmitry dies under mysterious circumstances in Uglich. An investigation, ordered by Godunov and carried out by Prince Vasily Shuysky, determines that the Tsarevich, while playing with a knife, had an epileptic seizure, fell, and died from a self-inflicted wound to the throat. Dmitriy's mother, Maria Nagaya, exiled with him to Uglich by Godunov, claims he was assassinated. Rumors linking Boris to the crime are circulated by his enemies.
• 1598 – Tsar Fyodor I dies. He is the last in a line of representatives of the Ryurik Dynasty who have ruled Russia for 7 centuries. Patriarch Job of Moscow nominates Boris to succeed Fyodor I as Tsar, despite the rumors that Boris ordered the murder of Dmitry. Boris agrees to ascend the throne only if elected by the Zemsky Sobor. This the assembly does unanimously, and Boris is crowned the same year.
• 1601 - The Russian famine of 1601–1603 undermines Boris Godunov's popularity and the stability of his administration.
• 1604 – A pretender to the throne appears, claiming to be Tsarevich Dmitry, but believed to be in reality one Grigory Otrepyev. He gains the support of the Polish aristocrats and magnates, and, obtaining a force of soldiers, he marches on Moscow. Crossing into Russia, Dmitry’s invasion force is joined by disaffected Cossacks. However, after a few victories, the campaign loses momentum.
• 1605 – Boris dies of unknown causes. He is succeeded by his son Fyodor, now Fyodor II. The death of Boris gives new life to the campaign of the False Dmitry, who enters Moscow. Boyars who flock to his side murder Fyodor II and his mother. The False Dmitry is crowned. Prince Shuysky begins plotting against him.
• 1606 – The Russian boyars oppose Dmitri's Polish and Catholic alliances. He is murdered shortly after wedding Marina Mniszech, and is succeeded by Vasily Shuysky, now Vasily IV.
• 1610 – Vasily IV is deposed, and dies two years later in a Polish prison. Another pretender claiming to be Dmitry Ivanovich, False Dmitry II, is murdered.
• 1611 – Yet a third pretender, False Dmitry III, appears. He is captured and executed in 1612.
• 1613 – The Time of Troubles comes to a close with the accession of Mikhail Romanov, son of Fyodor Romanov, who had been persecuted under Boris Godunov's reign.

Note: The culpability of Boris in the matter of Dmitriy's death can neither be proved nor disproved. Karamzin accepted his guilt as fact, and Pushkin and Mussorgsky after him assumed it to be true, at least for the purpose of creating a tragedy in the mold of Shakespeare. Modern historians, however, tend to acquit Boris of the crime.

Synopsis

Note: Shishkov and Bocharev designed the sets (samples below) used in the first complete performance in 1874.

( ) = Arias and numbers

[ ] = Passages cut from or added to the 1872 Revised Version [see Versions in this article for details]

Setting

• Time: The years 1598 to 1605
• Place: Moscow; the Lithuanian frontier; a castle in Sandomir; Kromï

Scenes

Shishkov's design for the Novodevichiy Monastery Scene (1870)

The Courtyard of the Novodevichiy Monastery near Moscow (1598). There is a brief introduction foreshadowing the 'Dmitriy Motif'. The curtain opens on a crowd in the courtyard of the monastery, where the weary regent Boris Godunov has temporarily retired. Nikitich the police officer orders the assembled people to kneel. He goads them to clamor for Boris to accept the throne. They sing a chorus of supplication ("To whom dost thou abandon us, our father?"). The people are bewildered about their purpose and soon fall to bickering with each other, resuming their entreaties only when the policeman threatens them with his club. Their chorus reaches a feverish climax. Andrey Shchelkalov, the Secretary of the Duma, appears from inside the convent, informs the people that Boris still refuses the throne of Russia ("Orthodox folk! The boyar is implacable!"), and requests that they pray that he will relent. An approaching procession of pilgrims sings a hymn ("Glory to Thee, Creator on high"), exhorting the people to crush the spirit of anarchy in the land, take up holy icons, and go to meet the Tsar. They disappear into the monastery. [Original 1869 Version only: The people discuss the statements of the pilgrims. Many remain bewildered about the identity of this Tsar. The police officer interrupts their discussion, ordering them to appear the next day at the Moscow Kremlin. The people move on, stoically exclaiming "if we are to wail, we might as well wail at the Kremlin".]

Bocharov's design for the Cathedral Square Scene (1874)

[Cathedral] Square in the Moscow Kremlin (1598). The unforgettable orchestral introduction is based on bell motifs. From the porch of the Cathedral of the Dormition, Prince Shuysky exhorts the people to glorify Tsar Boris. As the people sing a great chorus of praise ("Like the glory of the beautiful sun in the sky"), a solemn procession of boyars exits the cathedral. The people kneel. Boris appears on the porch of the cathedral. The shouts of "Glory!" reach a crescendo and subside. Boris addresses the people with a brief monologue ("My soul grieves") betraying a feeling of ominous foreboding. He prays for God's blessing, and hopes to be a good and just ruler. He invites the people to a great feast, and then proceeds to the Cathedral of the Archangel to kneel at the tombs of Russia's past rulers. The people wish Boris a long life ("Glory! Glory! Glory!"). A crowd breaks toward the cathedral. The police officers struggle to maintain order. The people resume their shouts of "Glory!"

Night. A Cell in the Chudov Monastery [within the Moscow Kremlin] (1603). Pimen, a venerable monk, writes a chronicle ("Yet one last tale") of Russian history. The young novice Grigoriy awakes from a horrible (and prophetic) dream, which he relates to Pimen, in which he climbed a high tower, was mocked by the people of Moscow, and fell. Pimen advises him to fast and pray. Grigoriy voices his regret that he retired so soon from worldly affairs to become a monk. He envies Pimen's early life of adventure. Pimen speaks approvingly of Ivan the Terrible and his son Fyodor, who both exhibited great spiritual devotion, and draws a contrast with Boris, a regicide. [Original 1869 Version only: At Grigoriy's request, Pimen tells the vivid details of the scene of the murder of Dmitry Ivanovich, which he witnessed in Uglich.] Upon discovering the similarity in age between himself and the murdered Tsarevich, Grigoriy immediately conceives the idea of posing as the Pretender. As Pimen departs for Matins, Grigoriy declares that Boris shall escape neither the judgment of the people, nor that of God.

Shishkov's design for the Inn Scene (1870)

An Inn on the Lithuanian Border (1603). There is a brief orchestral introduction based on three prominent themes from this scene. [Revised 1872 Version only: The Hostess enters and sings the 'Song of the Drake' ("I have caught a gray drake"). It is interrupted towards the end by approaching voices.] The vagrants Varlaam and Misail, who are dressed as monks and are begging for alms, and their companion Grigoriy, who is in secular garb, arrive and enter. After exchanging greetings, Varlaam requests some wine. When the Hostess returns with a bottle, he drinks and launches into a ferocious song ("So it was in the city of Kazan") of Ivan the Terrible's siege of Kazan. The two monks quickly become tipsy, and soon begin to doze. Grigoriy quietly asks the Hostess for directions to the Lithuanian border. Policemen appear in search of a fugitive heretic monk (Grigoriy) who has run off from the Chudov Monastery declaring that he will become Tsar in Moscow. Noticing Varlaam's suspicious behavior, the lead policeman thinks he has found his man. He cannot read the edict he is carrying, however, so Grigoriy volunteers to read it. He does so, but, eyeing Varlaam carefully, he substitutes Varlaam's description for his own. The policemen quickly seize Varlaam, who protests his innocence and asks to read the edict. He haltingly reads the description of the suspect, which of course matches Grigoriy. Grigoriy brandishes a dagger, and leaps out of the window. The men set off in pursuit.

The Interior of the Tsar's Terem in the Moscow Kremlin (1604). Kseniya, clutching a portrait of her betrothed who has died, sings a brief aria ("Where are you, my bridegroom?"). Her nurse and brother Fyodor attempt to cheer her up with some songs ("A gnat was chopping wood" and "A song of this and that"). Boris suddenly enters in an agitated state, briefly consoles Kseniya, and then sends her and her nurse to their own quarters. After encouraging his son to resume his studies, he gives vent to his emotions in a long and fine monologue ("I have attained supreme power"). At the end of this aria he reveals that he has been disturbed by a vision of a bloody child begging for mercy. A commotion breaks out in his children's quarters. Boris sends Fyodor to ascertain the nature of the disturbance. The boyar-in-attendance brings word of the arrival of Prince Shuysky, and reports a denunciation against him for his intrigues. Fyodor returns to relate a whimsical tale ("Our little parrot was sitting") involving a pet parrot. Boris takes comfort in his son's imagination and advises Fyodor, when he becomes Tsar, to beware of evil and cunning advisors such as Shuysky. Shuysky enters at that moment with grave tidings. A Pretender has appeared in Lithuania. Boris angrily demands to know his identity. Shuysky fears the Pretender might attract a following bearing the name of Dmitriy. Shaken by this revelation, Boris dismisses Fyodor. Clearly on the edge of madness, he asks Shuysky whether he has ever heard of dead children rising from their graves to interrogate Tsars. Boris seeks Shuysky's assurance that the dead child he had seen in Uglich was really Dmitriy. Shuysky confirms this in a brief and beautiful aria ("In Uglich, in the cathedral"). But he gives hints that a miracle has occurred. Boris begins choking in a paroxysm of guilt and remorse, and gives a sign for Shuysky to depart. A clock begins chiming. Boris hallucinates (Hallucination or 'Clock' Scene). The spectre of the dead Dmitriy reaches out to him. Addressing the apparition, he denies his responsibility for the crime: "Begone, begone child! Not I... the will of the people!" He collapses, praying that God will have mercy on his guilty soul.

Shishkov's design for the Scene in Marina's Boudoir (1870)

The Boudoir of Marina Mniszech in Sandomir [Poland] (1604). Maidens sing a delicate, sentimental song ("On the blue Vistula") to entertain Marina as her chambermaid dresses her hair. Marina declares her preference for heroic songs of chivalry. She dismisses everyone. Alone, she sings of her boredom ("How tediously and sluggishly"), of Dmitriy, and of her thirst for adventure, power, and glory. The Jesuit Rangoni enters, bemoans the sorry state of the church, and attempts to obtain Marina's promise that when she becomes Tsaritsa she will convert the heretics of Moscow (Russian Orthodox Church) to the true faith (Roman Catholicism). When Marina wonders why this should be her burden, Rangoni angrily declares that she shall stop short of nothing, including sacrificing her honor, to obey the dictates of the church. Marina expresses contempt of his hypocritical insinuations and demands he leave. As Rangoni ominously tells her she is in the thrall of infernal forces, Marina collapses in dread. Rangoni demands her obedience.

Shishkov's design for the Scene in the Garden of Mniszech's Castle (1870)

Mniszech's Castle in Sandomir. A Garden. A Fountain. A Moonlit Night (1604). Woodwind and harp accompany a pensive version of the 'Dmitriy Motif'. The Pretender dreams of an assignation with Marina in the garden of her father's castle. However, to his annoyance, Rangoni finds him, bringing news from Marina. She begs to speak with him. The Pretender resolves to throw himself at Marina's feet, begging her to be his wife and Tsaritsa. He entreats Rangoni to lead him to Marina. Rangoni, however, first wants the Pretender to consider him a father, allowing him to follow his every step and thought. The Pretender agrees not to part from him if he will only allow him to see Marina. Rangoni convinces the Pretender to hide as the Polish nobles issue from the castle dancing a polonaise (Polonaise). Marina flirts, dancing with an older man. The Poles sing of taking the Muscovite throne, defeating the army of Boris, and capturing him. They return to the castle. The Pretender comes out of hiding. Marina appears and calls to him. He is lovesick. She, however, only wants to know when he will be Tsar, and declares she can only be seduced by a throne and a crown. The Pretender kneels at her feet. She tells him to be off, and calls him a lackey. Having reached his limit, he tells her he will depart the next day to lead his army to Moscow and to his father's throne. Furthermore, as Tsar he will take pleasure in watching her come crawling back looking for her own lost throne, and will command everyone to laugh at her. She quickly changes her tune, and as they sing a duet ("O Tsarevich, I implore you"), she tells him she loves him. Rangoni slithers out of hiding to savor his accomplishment.

The Square before St. Basil's Cathedral in Moscow (1605). A crowd mills about before the Cathedral of the Intercession (Vasiliy the Blessed) in Red Square. Many are beggars, and policemen occasionally appear. A group of men enters, discussing the anathema the deacon had declared on Grishka (Grigoriy) Otrepyev in the mass. They identify Grishka as being the Tsarevich. With growing excitement they sing of the advance of his forces to Kromï, of his intent to retake his father's throne, and of the death he will mete out to the Godunovs. A yuródivïy enters, pursued by urchins. He sings a nonsensical song ("The moon is flying, the kitten is crying"). The urchins greet him and rap on his metal hat. The yuródivïy has a kopek, which the urchins promptly steal. He whines pathetically. The Tsar's retinue issues from the Cathedral. The boyars distribute alms. In a powerful chorus ("Benefactor father (Give us bread)"), the hungry people beg for bread. As the chorus subsides, the yuródivïy's cries are heard. Boris asks why he cries. The yuródivïy reports the theft of his kopek and asks Boris to order the boys' slaughter, just as he did in the case of the Tsarevich. Shuysky wants the yuródivïy seized, but Boris instead asks for the holy man's prayers. As Boris exits, the yurodivïy declares he cannot pray for Tsar Herod. The yuródivïy then sings his lament ("Flow, flow, bitter tears!") about the fate of Russia.

Shishkov's design for the Faceted Palace Scene (1870)

The Faceted Palace in the Moscow Kremlin (1605). A session of the Duma is in progress. [Original 1869 Version only: The assembled boyars listen as Shchelkalov, reading the Tsar's ukaz, informs them of the Pretender's advance, and requests they decide his fate.] After some arguments, the boyars agree ("Well, let's put it to a vote, boyars"), in a powerful chorus, that the Pretender and his sympathizers should be executed. Shuysky, whom they distrust, arrives with an interesting story. Upon leaving the Tsar's presence, he observed Boris attempting to drive away the ghost of the dead Tsarevich, exclaiming: "Begone, begone child!" The boyars accuse Shuysky of spreading lies. However, just at that moment, Boris enters, echoing Shuysky: "Begone child!" The boyars are horrified. After Boris comes to his senses, Shuysky informs him that a humble old man craves an audience. Pimen enters and tells the story ("One day, at the evening hour") of a blind man who heard the voice of the Tsarevich in a dream. Dmitry instructed him to go to Uglich and pray at his grave, for he has become a miracle worker in heaven. The man did as instructed and regained his sight. This story is the final blow for Boris. He calls for his son, declares he is dying ("Farewell, my son, I am dying"), and gives him final counsel. In a very dramatic scene ("The bell! The funeral bell!"), he dies.

A Forest Glade near Kromï (1605). Tempestuous music accompanies the entry of a crowd of vagabonds who have captured the boyar Khrushchov. The crowd taunts him, then bows in mock homage ("Not a falcon flying in the heavens"). The yuródivïy enters, pursued by urchins. He sings a nonsensical song ("The moon is flying, the kitten is crying"). The urchins greet him and rap on his metal hat. The yuródivïy has a kopek, which the urchins promptly steal. He whines pathetically. Varlaam and Misail are heard in the distance singing of the crimes of Boris and his henchmen ("The sun and moon have gone dark"). They enter. The crowd gets worked up to a frenzy ("Broken free, gone on a rampage") denouncing Boris. Two Jesuits are heard in the distance chanting in Latin ("Domine, Domine, salvum fac"), praying that God will save Dmitriy. They enter. At the instigation of Varlaam and Misail, the vagabonds prepare to hang the Jesuits, who appeal to the Holy Virgin for aid. Processional music heralds the arrival of Dmitriy and his forces. Varlaam and Misail evidently do not recognize him as the companion they chased into Lithuania, and glorify him ("Glory to thee, Tsarevich!") along with the crowd. The Pretender calls those persecuted by Godunov to his side. He frees Khrushchov, and calls on all to march on Moscow. All exeunt except the Yuródivïy, who sings a plaintive song ("Flow, flow, bitter tears!") of the arrival of the enemy, of woe to Russia, and of starving people.

From Mussorgsky's letter of 13 July 1872 to Vladimir Stasov: A citation from the closing bars of the opera (1872 version). The upper part depicts desolation, the lower, weeping. The inscription is a line from the yurodivïy's lament:
«Скоро врагъ придётъ и настанетъ тьма»
"Soon the enemy will arrive and darkness will come"

Principal arias and numbers

• Chorus: "To whom dost thou abandon us, our father!" «На кого ты нас покидаешь, отец наш!» (People)
• Aria: "Orthodox folk! The boyar is implacable!" «Православные! Неумолим боярин!» (Shchelkalov)
• Chorus: "Like the glory of the beautiful sun in the sky" «Уж как на небе солнцу красному слава» (People)
• Monologue: "My soul grieves" «Скорбит душа» (Boris)
• Chorus: "Glory! Glory! Glory!" «Слава! Слава! Слава!» (People)
• Aria: "Yet one last tale" «Еще одно, последнее сказанье» (Pimen)
• Song: "So it was in the city of Kazan" «Как во городе было во Казани» (Varlaam)
• Monologue: "I have attained supreme power" «Достиг я высшей власти» (Boris)
• Scene: "Hallucination" or "Clock Scene" «Сцена с курантами» (Boris)
• Aria: "How tediously and sluggishly" «Как томительно и вяло» (Marina)
• Dance: "Polonaise" «Полонез» (Marina, Polish nobles)
• Duet: "O Tsarevich, I implore you" «О царевич, умоляю» (Marina, Dmitry)
• Chorus: "Well, let's put it to a vote, boyars" «Что ж? Пойдём на голоса, бояре» (Boyars)
• Aria: "One day, at the evening hour" «Однажды, в вечерний час» (Pimen)
• Aria: "Farewell, my son, I am dying" «Прощай, мой сын, умираю...» (Boris)
• Scene: "The bell! The funeral bell!" «Звон! Погребальный звон!» (Boris, Fyodor, Chorus)
• Song: "Flow, flow, bitter tears!" «Лейтесь, лейтесь, слёзы горькие!» (Yurodivïy)

Versions by other hands

Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov 1896 & 1908

Feodor Chaliapin was a powerful exponent of the Rimsky-Korsakov version, which launched Boris Godunov in the world's opera houses. Portrait by Aleksandr Golovin.

"Although I know I shall be cursed for so doing, I will revise Boris. There are countless absurdities in its harmonies, and at times in its melodies."^[36]

—Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov

After Mussorgsky's death in 1881, his friend Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov undertook to put his scores in order, completing Khovanshchina, reconstructing Night on Bald Mountain, and "correcting" some songs. Next, he turned to Boris.^[37]

He experimented first with the Polonaise, scoring it for a Wagner-sized orchestra in 1888. In 1892 he revised the Coronation Scene, and completed the remainder of the opera in the 1874 Vocal Score, although with significant cuts, by 1896. In the spring of 1906, he revised and orchestrated several passages omitted in the 1896 revision:^[38]

1. "Pimen's story of Tsars Ivan and Fyodor"
2. "Over the map of the Muscovite land"
3. "The story of the parrot"
4. "The chiming clock"
5. "The scene of the False Dmitriy with Rangoni at the fountain"
6. "The False Dmitriy's soliloquy after the Polonaise"

Rimsky-Korsakov later completed another revision in 1908, this time restoring the cuts, adding some music to the Coronation Scene (because Diaghilev wanted more stage spectacle for the Paris premiere), and replacing the ending of Act III. These revisions went beyond mere reorchestration. He made substantial modifications to harmony, melody, dynamics, etc., even changing the order of scenes.

"Besides re-scoring Boris and correcting harmonies in it (which was quite justifiable), he [Rimsky-Korsakov] introduced in it many arbitrary alterations, which disfigured the music. He also spoilt the opera by changing the order of scenes."^[36]

—Mily Balakirev

"Maybe Rimsky-Korsakov's harmonies are softer and more natural, his part-writing better, his scoring more skillful; but the result is not Mussorgsky, nor what Mussorgsky aimed at. The genuine music, with all its shortcomings, was more appropriate. I regret the genuine Boris, and feel that should it ever be revived on the stage of the Mariinskiy Theatre, it is desirable that it should be in the original."^[39]

—César Cui

Rimsky-Korsakov immediately came under fire from some critics for altering Boris, particularly in France, where his revision was introduced. The defense usually made by his supporters was that without his ministrations, Mussorgsky's opera would have faded from the repertory due to difficulty in appreciating his raw and uncompromising idiom. Therefore, Rimsky-Korsakov was justified in making improvements to keep the work alive and increase the public's awareness of Mussorgsky's melodic and dramatic genius.

"I remained inexpressibly pleased with my revision and orchestration of Boris Godunov, heard by me for the first time with a large orchestra. Moussorgsky's violent admirers frowned a bit, regretting something... But having arranged the new revision of Boris Godunov, I had not destroyed its original form, had not painted out the old frescoes forever. If ever the conclusion is arrived at that the original is better, worthier than my revision, then mine will be discarded and Boris Godunov will be performed according to the original score."^[40]

—Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, Chronicle of My Musical Life, 1909

The Rimsky-Korsakov version remained the one usually performed in Russia, even after Mussorgsky's earthier original (1872) regained its place in Western opera houses. The Bolshoy Theatre has only recently embraced the composer's own version.^[41]

Dmitri Shostakovich 1940

Dmitri Shostakovich worked on Boris Godunov in 1939–1940 on a commission from the Bolshoi Theater for a new production of the opera. A conflation of the 1868 and 1872 versions had been published by Pavel Lamm and aroused keen interest in the piece. However, it did not erase doubts as to whether Mussorgsky's own orchestration was playable. The invasion of Russia by Nazi Germany prevented this production from taking place, and it was not until 1959 that Shostakovich's version of the score was premiered.^[42]

To Shostakovich, Mussorgsky was successful with solo instrumental timbres in soft passages but did not fare as well with louder moments for the whole orchestra.^[43] Shostakovich explained:

"Mussorgsky has marvelously orchestrated moments, but I see no sin in my work. I didn't touch the successful parts, but there are many unsuccessful parts because he lacked mastery of the craft, which comes only through time spent on your backside, no other way."

—Dmitry Shostakovich

Shostakovich confined himself largely to reorchestrating the opera, and was more respectful of the composer's unique melodic and harmonic style. However, Shostakovich greatly increased the contributions of the woodwind and especially brass instruments to the score, a significant departure from the practice of Mussorgsky, who exercised great restraint in his instrumentation, preferring to utilize the individual qualities of these instruments for specific purposes. Shostakovich also aimed for a greater symphonic development, wanting the orchestra to do more than simply accompany the singers.^[44]

"This is how I worked. I placed Mussorgsky's piano arrangement in front of me and then two scores — Mussorgsky's and Rimsky-Korsakov's. I didn't look at the scores, and I rarely looked at the piano arrangement either. I orchestrated by memory, act by act. Then I compared my orchestration with those of Mussorgsky and Rimsky-Korsakov. If I saw that either had done it better, then I stayed with that. I didn't reinvent bicycles. I worked honestly, with ferocity, I might say."

—Dmitry Shostakovich

Shostakovich remembered Alexander Glazunov telling him how Mussorgsky himself played scenes from Boris at the piano. Mussorgsky's renditions, according to Glazunov, were brilliant and powerful — qualities Shostakovich felt did not come through in the orchestration of much of Boris.^[45] Shostakovich, who had known the opera since his student days at the Saint Petersburg Conservatory, assumed that Mussorgsky's orchestral intentions were correct but that Mussorgsky simply could not realize them:^[46]

"As far as I can tell, he imagined something like a singing line around the vocal parts, the way subvoices surround the main melodic line in Russian folk song. But Mussorgsky lacked the technique for that. What a shame! Obviously, he had a purely orchestral imagination, and purely orchestral imagery, as well. The music strives for "new shores," as they say — musical dramaturgy, musical dynamics, language, imagery. But his orchestral technique drags us back to the old shores."

—Dmitry Shostakovich

One of those "old shore" moments was the large monastery bell in the scene in the monk's cell. Mussorgsky and Rimsky-Korsakov both use the gong. To Shostakovich, this was too elemental and simplistic to be effective dramatically, since this bell showed the atmosphere of the monk's estragement. "When the bell tolls," Shostakovich told Solomon Volkov, "it's a reminder that there are powers mightier than man, that you can't escape the judgment of history."^[47] Therefore, Shostakovich reorchestrated the bell's tolling by the simultaneous playing of seven instruments — bass clarinet, double bassoon, French horns, gong, harps, piano, and double basses (at an octave). To Shostakovich, this combination of instruments sounded more like a real bell.^[47]

Shostakovich admitted Rimsky-Korsakov's orchestration was more colorful than his own and used brighter timbres. However, he also felt that Rimsky-Korsakov chopped up the melodic lines too much and, by blending melody and subvoices, may have subverted much of Mussorgsky's intent. Shostakovich also felt that Rimsky-Korsakov did not use the orchestra flexibly enough to follow the characters' mood changes, instead making the orchestra calmer, more balanced.^[47]

Igor Buketoff 1997

The American conductor Igor Buketoff created a version in which he removed most of Rimsky-Korsakov's additions and reorchestrations, and fleshed out some other parts of Mussorgsky's original orchestration. This version had its first performance in 1997 at the Metropolitan Opera, New York, under Valery Gergiyev.^[48][49]

Discography

The following list contains all major audio and video recordings of Boris Godunov.

Related works

• Antonín Dvořák: Opera, Dimitrij (1882)
• Sergei Prokofiev: Incidental music, Boris Godunov (1936)

Notes

References

• Abraham, G., Essays on Russian and East European Music, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985
• Calvocoressi, M.D., Abraham, G., Mussorgsky, 'Master Musicians' Series, London: J.M.Dent & Sons, Ltd., 1974
• Calvocoressi, M.D., Modest Mussorgsky: His Life and Works, London: Rockliff, 1956
• Emerson, C., and Oldani, R. W., Modest Musorgsky and Boris Godunov: Myths, Realities, Reconsiderations, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994
• Gordeyeva, Ye. (editor), M.P. Musorgskiy: Letters, 2nd edition, Moscow: Music (publisher), 1984 [Гордеева, Е., М. П. Мусоргский: Письма, Москва: Музыка, 1984]
• Lloyd-Jones, D., "Boris Godunov": The Facts and the Problems, Oxford University Press, 1975 (reprinted in the notes to Philips CD 412 281-2)
• Lloyd-Jones, D., Interview: A Discussion with David Lloyd-Jones on The Sir Arnold Bax Website, 2002 (Accessed March 1, 2009)
• Maes, Francis, tr. Arnold J. Pomerans and Erica Pomerans, A History of Russian Music: From Kamarinskaya to Babi Yar (Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press, 2002). ISBN 0-520-21815-9.
• Oldani, R. W., John, N., Fay, L. E., de Jonge, A., Osborne, N., Opera Guide 11: Boris Godunov, London: John Calder, Ltd., 1982
• Orlova, A., Musorgsky Remembered, translated by Zaytzeff, V., and Morrison, F., Bloomington and Indianopolis: Indiana University Press, 1991
• Rimsky-Korsakov, N., Chronicle of My Musical Life, translated by Joffe, J. A., New York: Knopf, 1923
• Shirinyan, R. (author), Kondakhchan, K. (editor), M. P. Musorgsky, Moscow: Music (publisher), 1989 [Ширинян, Р., Кондахчан, К., М. П. Мусоргский, Москва: Музыка, 1989]
• Taruskin, R., Musorgsky: Eight Essays and an Epilogue, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1993
• Taruskin, R., Russian Originals De- and Re-edited, CD Review, New York Times, 1999 (Accessed February 21, 2009)
• Tchaikovsky, P., Piotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky: Letters to his Family, an Autobigraphy, translated by G. von Meck, New York: Stein and Day, 1982
• Volkov, S., Testimony: The Memoirs of Dmitry Shostakovich, translated by Bouis, Antonina W., New York: Harper & Row, 1979

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Boris Godunov (opera)

Libretto

• Russian libretto in HTML
• Russian libretto in zip file for Word

Other

• Boris Godunov: Free scores at the International Music Score Library Project.
• Upcoming performances of Boris Godunov from Operabase.com