botanical garden

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A garden for the culture of plants collected chiefly for scientific and educational purposes. Such a garden is more properly called a botanical institution, in which the outdoor garden is but one portion of an organization including the greenhouse, the herbarium, the library, and the research laboratory. See also Herbarium.

It was only in modern Europe, after the foundation of the great medieval universities, that botanical gardens for educational purposes began to be established in connection with the schools. The oldest gardens are those in Padua (established 1533) and at Pisa (1543). The botanical garden of the University of Leiden was begun in 1587, and the first greenhouse is said to have been constructed there in 1599. The Royal Botanical Gardens at Kew, England, were officially opened in 1841. This institution came to be known as the botanical capital of the world.

The first of the great tropical gardens was founded at Calcutta in 1787. The original name, Royal Botanic Garden, was changed in 1947 to Indian Botanic Garden. Another great tropical garden, the Jardin Botanico of Rio de Janeiro, was founded in 1808. The great tropical botanical garden of Buitenzorg (Bogor), Java, which originated in 1817, has an area of 205 acres (83 hectares) with an additional 150 acres (61 hectares) in the Mountain Garden.

The first great garden of the United States was founded by Henry Shaw at St. Louis in 1859, and is now known as the Missouri Botanical Garden. The New York Botanical Garden was chartered in 1891 and the Brooklyn Botanic Garden in 1910. The Jardin Botanique of Montreal, the leading garden of Canada, was opened in 1936. See also Arboretum.

A type of GARDEN developed by university medical schools in Europe from the mid-16th century for the collection and scientific study of plants; its origins lie in the monastic herbal gardens of the medieval period. The observation of plant specimens for educational purposes led to the establishment of numerous 'physic' gardens (hortus medicus): both Pisa and Padua had a botanic garden by 1544, and that at Florence was established in 1545; other early important examples include Leipzig (1580), Leiden (1587), Montpellier (1593), Oxford (1621), the Jardin des Plantes (1626), Paris, Uppsala (1665), Chelsea Physic Garden (1673), London, and Amsterdam (1682). The experimental method that was gradually beginning to dominate scientific study, together with the requirements imposed by the cultivation of plants, soon began to overshadow the aesthetic qualities that had characterized the Renaissance and Baroque garden. Virtually all decorative elements, such as statues, grottoes, fountains or mazes, were excluded from the botanic garden, whose value resided in its collection of such rare and exotic plant species as the sunflower, the agave or the tomato, all from newly discovered parts of the world. Certain plants, including the tulip, fritillary, narcissus, iris and anemone, were particularly sought after in the 17th century because of their shape and colour.

See the Abbreviations for further details.

A garden in which a variety of plants are collected and grown for scientific study and display; often includes greenhouses for tropical material.

Botanical, or botanic, gardens are tracts of land set aside for the cultivation of a diversity of plant species, grown not as cash crops—although botanical gardens may have commercial purposes—but rather for study and pleasure. Botanical gardens, including arboretums (tree collections), have served a variety of purposes throughout American history: re-search, education, conservation, plant development, and entertainment. Botanical gardens may specialize in local flora or present plants from around the world, within the limits of the local soil and climate unless the plants are placed in a greenhouse.

The arrangement of the botanical garden must balance an aesthetic presentation with educational purposes and spaces open to visitors, and yet useful for botanists and conservationists, although most botanical field re-search is carried out in environments other than public botanical gardens. Botanical gardens are often home to experiments with hybridization and the development of new plant species (cultivars).

In the eighteenth century, it became fashionable to construct gardens around Carl Linnaeus's classification system, which made comparisons within plant families easier. Moreover, the distinctions between more rustic English gardens and more geometric and orderly French gardens have also influenced American designers of botanical gardens. In addition, American gardens presenting species from around the world often group them by origin, sometimes fashioning each section to look like the native area. Alternately, plants are sometimes grouped by the geological features where they are found. However, American botanical gardens, especially those further north, must account for seasonal changes in planning their design, sometimes closing during the winter.

European Gardens

European botanical gardens originated in the Renaissance during the sixteenth century. During the Middle Ages, botanical investigations had been greatly hampered by the inability of manuscripts to depict plants accurately, as each copy was made anew. The invention of printing in the 1450s, combined with the recovery of ancient botanical texts, allowed the study of botany to flourish in the late fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.

It is believed that Luca Ghini created the first botanical garden in Pisa in 1543, but such gardens quickly spread throughout Italy and beyond into Europe, often connected to schools of medicine and focusing on medicinal herbals. Early medicinal gardens in America were modeled on these, most famously and perhaps first, a garden founded in 1694 outside Philadelphia by German Pietists.

Gardens of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries

Philadelphia was also the first center for public botanical gardens in the American colonies. Botanist John Bartram initiated the Philadelphia Botanical Garden just outside the city in 1728. The five-acre garden featured both native and exotic plants and Bartram traveled around America looking for worthy additions, some of which he sent to European gardens. The garden closed during the American Revolution.

Colonial powers often used botanical gardens to grow spices and exotic goods, but because of colonial America's relatively cold climate, gardens designed for overseas trade never became as prevalent as in India, Malaysia, or the West Indies. However, throughout American history botanical gardens have stimulated American agriculture by providing seeds for many commercial plants. The distinction between a garden and a nursery has never been absolute, as evidenced by the nursery founded in 1737 by Robert Prince in Flushing, New York. The nursery cultivated exotic trees and plants to sell to Americans and one famous patron was George Washington. In 1793, William Prince expanded the holdings and named it the Linnaean Botanic Garden. Many plants gathered during the explorations of Lewis and Clark were sent there. The garden thrived until the Civil War, collapsing in 1865.

Other nursery gardens, however, were spectacular failures, notably the Elgin Botanical Garden founded in Manhattan by physician David Hosack in 1801. This garden, which included greenhouses and hothouses to allow for the cultivation of species from warmer climates, was an early influence on the young John Torrey, an influential botanist. Hosack planted thousands of species on the twenty acres of land for medicinal, educational, and commercial purposes and spent vast sums on importing, growing, researching, and displaying plants from around the world. Bankrupted by the expense, however, Hosack had to sell the garden in 1810 at a net loss to New York State, which gave the land to Columbia College. The garden, on which Rockefeller Center stands, was quickly terminated.

The idea for a national botanic garden was first suggested in 1816 and one was established in Washington, D.C., in 1842, after a more modest attempt failed in 1837. The United States Botanic Garden, which, expanding, shifted locations in 1850 and 1933, became the receiver of plants collected on expeditions, which were then cultivated, studied, displayed, and dispersed. The garden today has over twenty-six-thousand plants, including ones that are rare, of historic value, are medicinally important, or are the subject of study. Meanwhile, the U.S. National Arboretum, also in Washington, D.C., was founded in 1927. Almost 450 acres are devoted to the display and study of trees and other flora. It is supervised by the Agricultural Research Service of the Department of Agriculture and has hybridized and introduced 650 new plant species to the American landscape.

Although other short-lived attempts to establish botanical gardens were made in the nineteenth century, it was not until 1859 that another (and the longest-running) public, non-governmental botanical garden was successfully opened in America. The Missouri Botanical Garden, which was begun in 1859 by Henry Shaw, an English merchant motivated to create a garden on his lands in St. Louis by a trip to London in 1851, including a visit to the renowned Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew. The Missouri Botanical Garden, operating into the twenty-first century, serves as the home for the Center for Plant Conservation, a coalition of over thirty botanical gardens nationwide that attempts to preserve endangered native American plants.

The Proliferation of Botanical Gardens

The late nineteenth and early twentieth century saw a marked increase in the number of public botanical gardens, many of them affiliated with universities or other research centers. Some were bequeathed to the public by devoted amateurs. Notable among the botanical gardens begun in this period include the Arnold Arboretum (1872), the New York Botanical Garden (1891), The Smith College Botanic Garden (1893–94), the Brooklyn Botanic Garden (1911), the Huntington Botanical Gardens (1912), Longwood Gardens (1921), and the University of California Botanical Garden in Berkeley (1928).

The Arnold Arboretum is affiliated with Harvard University, which had begun the much smaller Harvard Botanic Garden in connection with the Botanic research facilities in 1805, but the Arboretum estate was bequeathed by James Arnold for an open-air collection of both local and exotic woody plants. The Arboretum consists of 265 acres in Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts. It was created by Frederick Law Olmsted and its first director, Charles Sprague Sargent. Although suffering great damage in a 1938 hurricane, it remains one of the outstanding American gardens, known for its scientific research, plant development, extensive herbarium, and East Asian collections.

The New York Botanical Garden has 250 acres in The Bronx, and is a National Historic Landmark, along with the Missouri Botanical Garden and the recreation-only Boston Public Gardens. Many botanical gardens produce journals of their research, but the New York Botanical Garden has its own press, producing journals and books. In 2002, the garden opened the International Plant Science Center for its herbarium and library, both of which are among the largest in the world. The garden is renowned for its scientific research; climate change, molecular biology, plant diseases, and biodiversity are studied.

Smith College, which has a strong tradition in the botanical sciences, considers its entire campus, as reworked in 1893 by Frederick Law Olmsted, to be an arboretum, in addition to the botanical garden, which was officially begun in 1894. Today there are a variety of botanical resources at Smith College, including an herbarium and smaller gardens, that supplement the study of botany.

The Brooklyn Botanic Garden has fifty-two acres in the middle of New York City. As a small, urban garden, much of the scientific research focuses on plants native to the New York area and on the recent Center for Urban Restoration initiative with Rutgers University, which studies ways to ameliorate the environmental impact of urban development. Historically, a key element of the Brooklyn Botanic Garden's popularity has been its success in introducing botany to and encouraging horticulture among people living in the largest American city.

The Huntington Botanical Gardens in San Marino, California, were initially part of the estate of Henry Huntington, who began working on his botanical gardens in 1903 and officially founded the gardens in 1912. On the 150 acres there are several specialized gardens demonstrating landscapes from around the world, including subtropical and jungle. The garden is especially known for cultivating exotic succulents.

The Longwood Gardens in Pennsylvania offer 1,050 acres dedicated mostly to display and education, although there is also a center for research. Prior to the founding of the gardens, the estate—known as Peirce Farm—had a remarkable tree collection, which Pierre du Pont bought. In the early twentieth century, he began converting it into a public garden known for its beauty and extravagance. It was largely based on Italian and French models, but included display gardens exhibiting species from around the world.

The University of California Botanical Garden in Berkeley was originally established in 1890 as a garden specializing in native species. Upon being moved to a different campus location in 1928, the collection began to expand to include exotic species. Although the garden is only thirty-four acres, the collection is known for the diversity and depth of its holdings.

Also notable is the Desert Botanical Garden in Phoenix, Arizona, one of the largest desert gardens in the world. Founded in 1937, the southwestern climate allows the garden to cultivate and display in a natural setting plants that could not survive elsewhere in America.

Toward the end of the nineteenth century, botanical classifications and research became oriented toward physiology rather than morphology. This increased the amount of scientific equipment necessary for a botanical garden and encouraged a move away from Linnaean displays.

Botanical Gardens and Conservation

The suburbanization of the American landscape in the twentieth century has threatened the prominence and viability of public botanical gardens, especially those in cities. Urban renewal projects of the 1970s and 1980s, when combined with economic growth, perhaps resulted in an urban revival of the 1990s, in which botanical gardens again began to flourish.

Although botanical gardens remain significant for recreation and education, the most important trend in botanical gardens worldwide during the twentieth century has been an increasing awareness of the their potential to assist in conservation efforts. Industrialization, pollution, urbanization, suburbanization, the destruction of rainforests, climate change, and the spread of invasive species as a result of globalization are all currently threatening biodiversity, with plant species going extinct every day.

Botanical gardens can offer ex situ conservation from species that are being ousted from their original habitats. The first attempt to involve botanical gardens around the world in coordinated conservation efforts was made in 1987 with the founding of the Botanic Gardens Conservation Secretariat. At the start of the twenty-first century, the Center for Plant Conservation houses 580 rare native American species. But according to its statistics, 730 of the 20,000 American native plant species are now officially endangered, while about 4,000 are considered threatened. It seems that conservation has become the most important research function of botanical gardens today.

Bibliography

Correll, Philip G. Botanical Gardens and Arboreta of North America: An Organizational Survey. Los Angeles: American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta, 1980.

Directory of Gardens of North America. Kennett Square, Pa.: American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta, 1998.

Hill, Arthur W. "The History and Function of Botanic Gardens." Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 2 (February–April 1915): 185–240.

Hyams, Edward. Great Botanical Gardens of the World. New York: Macmillan, 1969.

MacPhail, Ian, comp. Hortus Botanicus: The Botanic Garden and the Book. Chicago: Morton Arboretum, 1972.

Mulligan, William C. The Complete Guide to North American Gardens. Boston: Little Brown, 1991.

O'Malley, Therese. "Your Garden Must Be a Museum to You." In Art and Science in America. Edited by Amy R. W. Meyers. San Marino, Calif.: Huntington Library, 1998.

Piacentini, Richard. The Plant Collections Directory: Canada and the United States. Kennett Square, Pa.: American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta, 1996.

—Caroline R. Sherman

Also called botanical garden. Primarily an institution for research in the field of botany and, by extension, horticulture. The modern botanic garden will have, besides research laboratories, a library and herbarium; large collections of growing plants, both outdoors and in a greenhouse; and usually elaborate gardens.

This article is about a particular type of garden. For other uses, see Botanical garden (disambiguation).

Inside the United States Botanic Garden
Washington, D.C.

Although there is no definitive definition of what constitutes a botanical garden or botanic garden,^[1] the following has widespread support: "A botanic garden is an institution holding documented collections of living plants for the purposes of scientific research, conservation, display and education." ^[2] While their origins lie in medieval physic gardens,^[3] modern botanic gardens are increasingly important in conservation as well as research. Most also entertain and educate the public, upon whom they often depend for funding.

Contents 1 Definition 2 History 3 Activities 3.1 Research 3.2 Conservation 3.3 Display 3.4 Education 4 See also 5 Notes 6 References 7 External links

Definition

The terms botanical garden and botanic garden are used more-or-less interchangeably in English (and in both cases, "gardens" may be used instead of "garden").^[4] The oldest botanical gardens in English-speaking countries generally use the term 'botanic' in their titles: for example, the University of Oxford Botanic Garden in the UK (founded in 1621); the United States Botanic Garden, Washington, D.C. (founded in 1816);^[5] or the Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney (also founded in 1816). A botanical garden containing mainly trees is generally called an arboretum.

According to Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI), because there is no clear definition of a "botanical" garden, there is no absolute boundary between public parks, private collections and "true scientifically based botanic gardens."^[1] Narrower definitions of a botanical garden focus on scientific research and education; for example, BGCI claims that the following definition "encompasses the spirit of a true botanic garden":^[1]

A botanic garden is an institution holding documented collections of living plants for the purposes of scientific research, conservation, display and education.^[2]

Botanical gardens fully meeting this definition are typically run by universities or other scientific research organizations. They are likely to have associated herbaria and have research programmes in plant taxonomy.

The presence or absence of the word 'botanical' in the title of a garden does not necessarily relate to BGCI's preferred definition. Thus although the Fletcher Moss Botanical Garden in the UK is included in a guide to the botanical gardens of Britain,^[6] it is run by Manchester City Council and has no associated scientific research.^[7] Conversely, the American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta, founded in 1940, changed its name to the American Public Gardens Association in 2006,^[8] although its members remain involved in scientific and conservation activities.^[9]

History

Further information: History of botany

Botanical gardens, in the modern sense, developed from physic gardens, whose main purpose was to grow herbs for medicinal application. Such gardens have a long history. In Europe, for example, Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC) is said to have had a physic garden, which was inherited by his pupil Theophrastus,^[3] although this is disputed by some.^[10]

Early mediaeval Islamic Spain had gardens which have been called 'botanical', e.g. Ibn Wafid's garden at Toledo, Seville, in the 11th century.^[11] It has been suggested that the Spanish conquest of Mesoamerica influenced the history of botanical gardens.^[12] Gardens in Tenochtitlan and Nezahualcoyotl greatly impressed the invaders, and the Aztecs knew many more medicinal plants than did the classical world of Europe.^[13]

If a botanical garden is defined by a scientific or academic connection, then the first true botanical gardens were founded in Northern Italy in connection with universities.

A 16th century print of the Botanical Garden of Padua – the oldest academic botanic garden that is still in its original location

• Pisa (1544) by Luca Ghini (1490-1556)
• Padua (1545)
• Florence (1545)
• Bologna (1568)

Although the dates given above are generally accepted, precisely dating the origin of a botanical garden is often problematic. Government decrees may be issued some time before land is acquired and planting begins; thus the Jardin des Plantes in Paris was founded by an edict of 1626, but the edict allowing planting was not issued until 1635.^[12] Previously existing gardens may be taken over and converted; thus there was a garden at Kew in the 17th century, although the generally accepted date for it becoming a botanic garden is 1759 in the following century.^[14]. Finally, the institution may be moved from one site to another, in which case the question arises of whether it is the same garden; thus the garden at Pisa moved to its current site in 1591.^[15]

Other European towns and universities followed the Italian example throughout the 16th and 17th centuries. Initially these gardens were largely medical in orientation.^[16]

• Tübingen, Germany (1535) by Leonhart Fuchs
• Valencia (linked page in Spanish), Spain (1567)
• Leiden, Netherlands (1590)
• Montpellier, France (1593)
• Heidelberg, Germany (1597)
• Copenhagen, Denmark (1600)
• Oxford, England (1621)
• Paris (1635)
• Uppsala, Sweden (1655)
• Hannover, Germany (1666)
• Chelsea, England (1673)

With increasing exploration and the foundation of overseas empires by many European countries, the nature of botanical gardens changed. Expeditions brought back plants from all over the world, which needed to be documented for scientific purposes and, where possible, cultivated for commerce. Tropical crops could not be cultivated in Europe itself, and so botanical gardens were created overseas.^[16] Some notable gardens founded in the 18th century with this colonial connection are:

• Madrid, Spain (1755)
• Kew, England (1759)
• Pamplemousse, Mauritius (then a French colony) (1770) ^[17]
• Coimbra, Portugal (1772)
• Calcutta, India (1787)
• Oratava (linked page in Spanish), Tenerife, Spain (1788)

From the 19th century onwards, public gardens were created throughout the world. Many of them were mainly for amenity purposes, although true botanic gardens continued to be established (e.g. Missouri Botanical Garden in 1859). As of November 2009^[ref], BGCI lists some 1,800 botanic gardens in almost 150 countries.^[16]

• For more information on current botanical gardens, classified by country, see List of botanical gardens.

Seiwa-en Japanese Garden, Missouri Botanical Garden, USA	Inside Kew Gardens Palm House, England	The Botanical Garden of Curitiba, Southern Brazil	The New Brunswick Botanical Garden, Canada
A botanical garden of Kitchener's Island, Aswan, Egypt	University of British Columbia Botanical Garden, Canada	Inside the Botanical Garden of the University of Coimbra, Portugal	Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney, Australia
The Harry P. Leu Gardens in Orlando, Florida, USA	Palmhouse, Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh, Scotland	Lake in Acharya Jagadish Chandra Bose Botanical Garden, near Calcutta, India	Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden, South Africa

Activities

Research

This section requires expansion.

From the late 18th century onward, European botanical gardens sent plant-collecting expeditions to various parts of the world and published their findings. Voyages of exploration routinely included botanists for this purpose. Subsequent scientific work studied how these exotic plants might be adapted to grow in the garden's locale, how to classify them, and how to propagate rare or endangered species. The Royal Botanic Gardens in Kew, near London, has continuously published journals and more recently catalogues and databases since this time.

Conservation

This section requires expansion.

Display

This section requires expansion.

Education

This section requires expansion.

Educational projects at botanical gardens range from introductions to plants that thrive in different environments to practical advice for the home gardener. Many have plant shops, selling flower, herb, and vegetable seedlings suitable for transplantation. Some gardens such as the UBC Botanical Garden and Centre for Plant Research and the Chicago Botanic Garden have plant breeding programs and introduce new plants to the horticultural trade.

See also

• List of botanical gardens
• Plant collecting
• PlantCollections (a database)

Notes

1. ^ ^{a b c} Wyse Jackson & Sutherland 2000, p. 12
2. ^ ^{a b} Wyse Jackson 1999
3. ^ ^{a b} Young 1987, p. 7
4. ^ See for example the lists of botanical gardens in the US or the UK.
5. ^ Brief History of the US Botanic Garden, http://www.usbg.gov/history/history.cfm, retrieved 2009-11-11 
6. ^ Young 1987, pp. 62-64
7. ^ Fletcher Moss Botanical Gardens, Manchester City Council, http://www.manchester.gov.uk/info/200073/parks_and_open_spaces/2236/fletcher_moss_botanical_gardens/1, retrieved 2009-11-11 
8. ^ APGA: About Us, http://www.publicgardens.org/web/2006/06/about_us.aspx, retrieved 2009-11-11 
9. ^ North American Botanic Garden Strategy for Plant Conservation, Brooklyn, New York: Botanic Gardens Conservation International, 2006, http://www.rbg.ca/cbcn/en/publications/nabgs/nabgs_final_eng.pdf, retrieved 2009-11-11 
10. ^ Thanos 2005
11. ^ Harvey 1981, quoted in Taylor 2006, p. 57
12. ^ ^{a b} Hyams & MacQuitty 1969, p. 12
13. ^ Guerra 1966, pp. 332-333
14. ^ "Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew", World Heritage (UNESCO), http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1084, retrieved 2009-11-14 
15. ^ Orto Botanico dell'Università di Pisa, http://www.horti.unimore.it/CD/Pisa/Pisahome.html, retrieved 2009-11-14 
16. ^ ^{a b c} The History of Botanic Gardens, BCGI, http://www.bgci.org/resources/history/, retrieved 2009-11-11 
17. ^ The official website ( Sir Seewoosagur Ramgoolam Botanical Garden, http://www.gov.mu/portal/site/ssrbg/menuitem.25abe000ff3471212ed2251048a521ca/, retrieved 2009-11-01 ) gives the starting date of the first responsible offical as 1753; most sources, including the Wikipedia page, prefer 1770, under the Director P. Poivre.

References

• Guerra, Francisco (1966), "Aztec Medicine", Medical History 10 (4): 315–338, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/pmc/articles/PMC1033639/pdf/medhist00149-0009.pdf 
• Harvey, John (1981), Mediaeval Gardens, London: Batsford, ISBN 978-0-7134-2395-2, OCLC 8593511 
• Hyams, Edward; MacQuitty, William (1969), Great Botanical Gardens of the World, London: Nelson, ISBN 0 17 143004 2 
• Taylor, Patrick (2006), The Oxford Companion to the Garden, Oxford: OUP, ISBN 978-0-19-866255-6 
• Thanos, C.A. (2005), "The Geography of Theophrastus’ Life and of his Botanical Writings (Περι Φυτων)", in Karamanos, A.J. & Thanos, C.A. (eds), Biodiversity and Natural Heritage in the Aegean, Proceedings of the Conference ‘Theophrastus 2000’ (Eressos - Sigri, Lesbos, July 6-8, 2000), Athens: Fragoudis, pp. 23-45, http://www.biology.uoa.gr/~cthanos/Papers/Theophrastus%20Geography.pdf, retrieved 2009-11-11 
• Wyse Jackson, P.S. (1999), "Experimentation on a Large Scale—An Analysis of the Holdings and Resources of Botanic Gardens", BGCNews (Richmond, UK: Botanic Gardens Conservation International) 3 (3), http://www.bgci.org/resources/article/0080/ 
• Wyse Jackson, P.S.; Sutherland, L.A. (2000), International Agenda for Botanic Gardens in Conservation, Richmond, UK: Botanic Gardens Conservation International, ISBN 0 952027 59 3, OCLC 46635384, http://www.bcn.es/medciencies/botanicgardens2004/abstracts/pdf_publicacions/IntenationaAgenda.pdf 
• Young, Michael (1987), Collins Guide to the Botanical Gardens of Britain, London: Collins, ISBN 0 00 218213 0 

External links

• Botanic Gardens Conservation International The World's Largest Plant Conservation Network, working with 800 Botanic Gardens Worldwide.

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