calligraphy

European Calligraphy

In Europe two sorts of handwriting came into being very early. Cursive script was used for letters and records, while far more polished writing styles, called uncials, were used for literary works. Both styles can be seen in papyrus fragments from the 4th cent. B.C. After the 1st cent. A.D. the development of the half uncial or minuscule letter from the Roman capital gave rise to an extraordinarily beautiful and long-lasting calligraphy.

As tools and materials of high quality came into use, masterpieces of calligraphic art were produced, e.g., the Irish Book of Kells (8th cent.; Trinity College, Dublin; see under Ceanannus Mór) and the English Lindisfarne Gospels (8th cent.; British Mus.; see Holy Island). Carolingian minuscule script and its splendid and complex derivative, known as Gothic, were the principal calligraphic styles from the 9th to the 14th cent.

The humanistic handwriting style of the Renaissance, a deliberate imitation of Carolingian minuscule, was both aesthetically pleasing and extremely legible. The Italian manuscript copyists of the middle to late 15th cent. produced many glorious calligraphic works. Among the best known of these masters were Matteo Contugi, Gianrinaldo Mennio, and Pierantonio Sallando. Alphabet design became a subject of study, and several technical treatises were published on writing styles.

By the late 16th cent., with the secure establishment of the printing press, the art of calligraphy declined generally throughout Europe. Penmanship of a relatively inferior sort was taught in elementary schools in England and in the United States until the late 19th cent. The 20th cent. has experienced a revival of interest in the art, influenced by the work of Owen Jones and William Morris. Fine calligraphy is currently taught in art and craft schools and is exhibited in museums.

Asian Calligraphy

In the East calligraphy has been consistently practiced as a major aesthetic expression. In China, from the 5th cent. B.C., when it was first used, calligraphy has always been considered equal, or even superior, to painting. Chinese calligraphy began with a simplified seal script, known as “chancery script,” in which the width of the strokes varies and the edges and ends are sharp. The perfection of the brush in the 1st cent. A.D. made possible the stylization of chancery script into “regular script,” distinguished by its straight strokes of varying width, and clear, sharp corners, and a cursive “running hand.”

The Japanese value calligraphy as highly as do the Chinese. They began to practice it only in the 7th cent. A.D., with the introduction of Buddhist manuscripts from China. Kukai, c.800, invented the syllabic script, which was based on Chinese characters.

Arabic Calligraphy

The art of calligraphy is also practiced with the limited letter alphabet of Arabic. Because the Muslim faith discourages pictorial representation and reveres the Qur'an, the Islamic peoples esteem calligraphy as highly as do those of East Asia. The earliest Islamic calligraphy is found in the beautiful Qur'ans, written with black ink or gold leaf on parchment or paper in formal, angular script. Begun by the 8th cent., this script was fully developed by the 10th.

Elaborations, such as foliation, interfacing, and other complexities were invented later, but they are used only for decorative work. Qur'ans continued to be copied in austere and monumental letters. In the 12th cent. rounded cursive style was invented and spread throughout Islam. Many different cursive scripts developed thereafter. In Islam calligraphy decorates mosques, pottery, metalwork, and textiles, as well as books.

Bibliography

See H. Child, Calligraphy Today (1964, repr. 1988); D. Miner, ed., 2,000 Years of Calligraphy (1965, repr. 1972); A. Baker, Calligraphy (1973); P. Standard, Calligraphy's Flowering, Decay, and Restoration (1977).

Contemporary Western Calligraphy.

Calligraphy (from Greek κάλλος kallos "beauty" + γραφή graphẽ "writing") is the art of beautiful writing (Mediavilla 1996: 17). A contemporary definition of calligraphic practice is "the art of giving form to signs in an expressive, harmonious and skillful manner" (Mediavilla 1996: 18). The story of writing is one of aesthetic evolution framed within the technical skills, transmission speed(s) and materials limitations of a person, time and place (Diringer 1968: 441). A style of writing is described as a script, hand or alphabet (Fraser & Kwiatkowski 2006; Johnston 1909: Plate 6).

Calligraphy ranges from functional hand lettered inscriptions and designs to fine art pieces where the abstract expression of the handwritten mark may or may not supersede the legibility of the letters (Mediavilla 1996). Classical calligraphy differs from typography and non-classical hand-lettering, though a calligrapher may create all of these; characters are historically disciplined yet fluid and spontaneous, improvised at the moment of writing (Pott 2006 & 2005; Zapf 2007 & 2006). So, many calligraphers are as happy with "jazz" as "classical" for musical analogy and represents differing emphasis between artists.

Calligraphy continues to flourish in the forms of wedding and event invitations, font design/ typography, original hand-lettered logo design, religious art,various announcements/ graphic design/ commissioned calligraphic art, cut stone inscriptions, memorial documents, props and moving images for film and television, testimonials, birth and death certificates/maps, and other works involving writing (see for example Letter Arts Review; Propfe 2005; Geddes & Dion 2004).

East Asian calligraphy

Chinese calligraphy written by Song Dynasty (A.D. 1051-1108) poet Mi Fu. For centuries, the Chinese literati were expected to master the art of calligraphy.

Main article: East Asian calligraphy

Asian calligraphy typically uses ink brushes to write Chinese characters (called Hanzi in Chinese, Hanja in Korean, Kanji in Japanese, and Hán Tự in Vietnamese). Calligraphy (in Chinese, Shufa 書法, in Korean, Seoye 書藝, in Japanese Shodō 書道, all meaning "the way of writing") is considered an important art in East Asia and the most refined form of East Asian painting.

Calligraphy has also influenced ink and wash painting, which is accomplished using similar tools and techniques. Calligraphy has influenced most major art styles in East Asia, including sumi-e, a style of Chinese, Korean, and Japanese painting based entirely on calligraphy.

Jiǎgǔwén Jīnwén Dàzhuàn Xiǎozhuàn Lìshū Kǎishū (t) Kǎishū (s) Source

Historical evolution of Eastern calligraphy

Ancient China

In ancient China, the oldest Chinese character we still have are Jiǎgǔwén characters carved on ox scapula and tortoise plastrons, while brush-written ones have decayed over time. During the divination ceremony, after the cracks were made, the characters were written with a brush on the shell or bone to be latter carved, perhaps by a separate individual and in a specific workshop (Keightley, 1978).

With the development of Jīnwén (Bronzeware script) and Dàzhuàn (Large Seal Script) we continue to see "cursive" signs. Moreover, it is evident that each archaic kingdom of current China had its own set of characters.

Imperial China

In Imperial China, the graphs on old steles — some dating from 200 BC, and in Xiaozhuan style — are still accessible to us.

About 220 BC, the emperor Qin Shi Huang, the first to conquer all Chinese basin, imposed several reforms, among them Li Si's character uniformisation, which created a set of 3300 standardized Xiǎozhuàn characters^[1]. Despite the fact that the main writing implement of the time was already the brush, few papers survive from this period, and the main examples of this style are on steles.

Then, the Lìshū style (clerical script) which is more regularized, and in some ways similar to modern text was then developed.

Kǎishū style (regular script) — still in use today — is even more regularized. It can be seen that the Kaishu shape of characters 1000 years ago was mostly similar as that at the end of Imperial China. But tinies slides have be made, in example in the shape of 广 which is not absolutely the same in the Kangxi dictionary of 1716, than in modern books. The Kangxi and current shapes have tiny differences, while current stroke order is still the same, according to old style^[2].

Cursive styles and hand-written styles

Cursive styles such as Xíngshū (semi-cursive or running script) and Cǎoshū (cursive or grass script) are "high speed" calligraphic styles, were each move made by the writing tool is visible. This styles especially like to play with stroke order rules, creating new visual effects.

Native writers, moreover, create their own style and stroke order rules to ease and speed their own use, which imply wide variations in the resulting character shapes from one word and one writer to the same word by an other writer (and other stroke order/shape).

Indian calligraphy

Main article: Indian calligraphy

Tibetan calligraphy

Calligraphy is central in Tibetan culture. The script is derived from Indic scripts. As in China, the nobles of Tibet, such as the High Lamas and inhabitants of the Potala Palace, were usually capable calligraphers. Tibet has been a center of Buddhism for several centuries, and that religion places a great deal of significance on written word. This does not provide for a large body of secular pieces, although they do exist (but are usually related in some way to Tibetan Bhuddism). Almost all high religious writing involved calligraphy, including letters sent by the Dalai Lama and other religious and secular authority. Calligraphy is particularly evident on their prayer wheels, although this calligraphy was forged rather than scribed, much like Arab and Roman calligraphy is often found on buildings. Although originally done with a reed, Tibetan calligraphers now use chisel tipped pens and markers as well.

Persian calligraphy

Example showing Nastaʿlīq's proportional rules.

Main article: Persian calligraphy

Persian calligraphy is the calligraphy of Persian writing system. The history of calligraphy in Persia dates back to the pre-Islam era. In Zoroastrianism beautiful and clear writings were always praised. The main types of Persian calligraphy are: Nasta'liq script, Shekasteh-Nasta'liq script and Naghashi-khat.

Islamic calligraphy

Main article: Islamic calligraphy

A page of a 12th century Qur'an written in the Andalusi script

Islamic calligraphy (calligraphy in Arabic is Khatt ul-Yad خط اليد) is an aspect of Islamic art that has evolved alongside the religion of Islam and the Arabic language.

Arabic calligraphy is associated with geometric Islamic art (arabesque) on the walls and ceilings of mosques as well as on the page. Contemporary artists in the Islamic world draw on the heritage of calligraphy to use calligraphic inscriptions or abstractions in their work.

Instead of recalling something related to the reality of the spoken word, calligraphy for Muslims is a visible expression of the highest art of all, the art of the spiritual world. Calligraphy has arguably become the most venerated form of Islamic art because it provides a link between the languages of the Muslims with the religion of Islam. The holy book of Islam, al-Qur'an, has played an important role in the development and evolution of the Arabic language, and by extension, calligraphy in the Arabic alphabet. Proverbs and complete passages from the Qur'an are still active sources for Islamic calligraphy.

There was a strong parallel tradition to that of the Islamic, among Aramaic and Hebrew scholars, seen in such works as the Hebrew illuminated bibles of the 9th and 10th centuries.

Western calligraphy

Calligraphy in a Latin Bible of AD 1407 on display in Malmesbury Abbey, Wiltshire, England. The Bible was hand written in Belgium, by Gerard Brils, for reading aloud in a monastery.

Western calligraphy is the calligraphy of the Latin writing system, and to a lesser degree the Greek and Cyrillic writing systems (Daniels & Bright 1996; Knight 1996). Early alphabets had evolved by about 3000 BC. From the Etruscan alphabet evolved the Latin alphabet. Capital letters (majuscules) emerged first, followed by the invention of lower case letters (minuscules) in the Carolingian period (Mediavilla 1996). The history of lettering records many excursions into historical obscurity and disuse as well as elaborating the story of what gave rise to contemporary print (Walther & Wolf 2005; Gray 1986).

Long, heavy rolls of papyrus were replaced by the Romans with the first books, initially simply folded pages of parchment made from animal skins. Reed pens were replaced by quill pens (Jackson 1981).

Christian churches promoted the development of writing through the prolific copying of the Bible, particularly the New Testament and other sacred texts (de Hamel 2001a). Two distinct styles of writing known as uncial and half-uncial developed from a variety of Roman bookhands (Knight 1998: 10)."Uncia" is the Latin word for inch (Brown & Lovett 1999: 39). The 7th-9th centuries in northern Europe were the heyday of Celtic illuminated manuscripts, exemplified by the Book of Durrow, Lindisfarne Gospels and the Book of Kells (Trinity College Library Dublin 2006; Walther & Wolf 2005; Brown & Lovett 1999: 40; Backhouse 1981).

Charlemagne's devotion to improved scholarship resulted in the recruiting of "a crowd of scribes", according to Alcuin, the Abbot of York (Jackson 1981: 64). Alcuin developed the style known as the Caroline or Carolingian minuscule (minuscule is a synonym for "lower-case"). The first manuscript in this hand was the Godescalc Evangelistary (finished 783) — a Gospel book written by the scribe Godescalc (Walther & Wolf 2005; de Hamel 1994: 46-48). Carolingian remains the one progenitor hand from which modern booktype descends (de Hamel 1994: 46).

Calligraphy of the German word "Urkunde" (deed)

Blackletter (also known as Gothic) and its variation Rotunda, gradually developed from the Carolingian hand during the 12th century. Over the next three centuries, the scribes in northern Europe used an ever more compressed and spiky form of Gothic. Those in Italy and Spain preferred the rounder but still heavy-looking Rotunda. During the 15th century, Italian scribes returned to the Roman and Carolingian models of writing and designed the Italic hand, also called Chancery cursive, and Roman bookhand. These three hands — Gothic, Italic, and Roman bookhand — became the models for printed letters. Johannes Gutenberg used Gothic to print his famous Bible, but the lighter-weight Italic and Roman bookhand have since become the standard.

During the Middle Ages, hundreds of thousands of manuscripts were produced: some illuminated with gold and fine painting, some illustrated with line drawings, and some just textbooks (Kerr 2006; Alexander 2005; de Hamel 2001b & 1992; Wieck 1983).

Resurgence of Western calligraphy

The Gutenberg Bible sparked the synergy of the printing press and movable type for the first time in Mainz Germany in about 1455, but was not the end of handwriting (Zapf 2007; de Hamel 2001a; Gilderdale 1999; Gray 1971). Illuminated manuscripts declined however after printing became ubiquitous (de Hamel 2001a; de Hamel 1986). Conventionally the histories of Copperplate hands have represented such writing to have been with a sharp pointed nib instead of the broad-edged one used in most calligraphic writing. This so called "Copperplate Myth" represents the name to come from the sharp lines of the writing style resembling the etches of engraved copper printing plates (for example Harris 1991: 117). It is unlikely that this picture represents the historical origins of the term accurately, but is rather more reflective of later 19th and 20th century antipecuniary comfort of the Arts and Crafts movement participants (Gilderdale 1999; for example Hewitt 1930). It is most likely that what is today written with pointed steel nibs ("copperplate", Zanerian, Spencerian hands for example) began stylistic life before the 1820's with a broad edged quill and a number of period pen hold, posture and arm position variations to facilitate the fine lines (Gilderdale 2006; Henning 2002; Gilderdale 1999; Bickham 1743). Hence there was likely a gradual change in historic writing practices and a reorientation of the vocation and place of writing rather than the elimination of the art.

At the end of the 19th century, the rise of William Morris and the Arts and Crafts movement's aesthetics and philosophy captured many calligraphers, including Englishmen Edward Johnston and Eric Gill (Cockerell 1945; Morris 1882). Johnston and his students were to redefine, revive and popularise English broad-pen calligraphy. Edward Johnston developed his own broad-edged hand after studying 10th-century manuscripts, such as the Ramsey Psalter, BL, Harley MS 2904, following an introduction to them at the Fitzherbert Museum by Sir Sidney Cockerell (Cockerell 1945).

The legacy of the Arts and Crafts movement includes considerable myth (Gilderdale 1999). Published in 1906, Johnston’s best known work Writing, Illuminating & Lettering never used the terms “Foundational” or “Foundational Hand” for which he is most remembered. Johnston initially taught his students an uncial hand using a flat pen angle, but later taught his “foundational hand” using a slanted pen angle. He first referred to this hand as “Foundational Hand” in Plate 6 of his 1909 publication, Manuscript & Inscription Letters for Schools and Classes and for the Use of Craftsmen. The Johnston Typeface (commissioned in 1916) became the basis for the London Underground signage and continues today in the New Johnston typeface, revised in 1988 (Baines & Dixon 2003: 81).

At about the same time as Johnston, Austrian Rudolf Larisch was teaching lettering at the Vienna School of Art and published six lettering books that greatly influenced German-speaking calligraphers. Because German-speaking countries had not abandoned the Gothic hand in printing, Gothic also had a powerful effect on their styles. Rudolf Koch was a friend and younger contemporary of Larisch. Koch's books, type designs, and teaching made him one of the most influential calligraphers of the 20th century in northern Europe and later in the U.S. Larisch and Koch taught and inspired many European calligraphers, notably Friedrich Neugebauer, Karlgeorg Hoefer, and Hermann Zapf (Cinamon 2001; Kapr 1991).

Graily Hewitt was most responsible for the revival of the art of gilding as Johnston's (1906) co-author of Writing, Illuminating and Lettering (Chapter 9 Appendix) and through his own publications, the most noteworthy of which was Lettering for Students & Craftsmen (1930). Hewitt is not without both critics (Tresser 2006) and supporters (Whitley 2000: 90) in his rendering of Cennino Cennini's medieval gesso recipes (Herringham 1899). Donald Jackson, a British calligrapher, has sourced his gesso recipes from earlier centuries a number of which are not presently in English translation (Jackson 1981: 81). Graily Hewitt created the patent announcing the award to Prince Philip of the title of Duke of Edinburgh on November 19 1947, the day before his marriage to Queen Elizabeth (Hewitt 1944-1953).

Many typefaces are based on historical hands, such as Blackletter (including Fraktur), Lombardic, Uncial, Italic, and Roundhand.

Calligraphy today

Modern western calligraphy

Calligraphy today finds diverse applications. These include graphic design, logo design, type design, paintings, scholarship, maps, menus, greeting cards, invitations, legal documents, diplomas, cut stone inscriptions, memorial documents, props and moving images for film and television, business cards, and handmade presentations. Many calligraphers make their livelihood in the addressing of envelopes and invitations for public and private events including wedding stationery. Entry points exist for both children and adults via classes and instruction books.

The scope of the calligraphic art is more than pure antiquarian interest (Zapf 2007; Mediavilla 1996; Child 1988, 1976 & 1963; International Typeface Corporation 1982). Johnston's legacy remains pivotal to the ambitions of perhaps most Western calligraphers-

"It is possible even now to go back to the child's- something like the early calligrapher's- point of view, and this is the only healthy one for any fine beginning: to this nothing can be added; all Rules must give way to Truth and Freedom" (Johnston 1909: contents page).

The multi-million dollar Saint John's Bible project for the 21st century has engaged Donald Jackson with an international scriptorium and is nearing completion. It is designed as a 21st century illuminated Bible, executed with both ancient and modern tools and techniques. The earlier 20th-century "Bulley Bible" was executed by a student of Edward Johnston's, Edward Bulley (Green 2003).

The digital era has facilitated the creation and dissemination of thousands of new and historically styled fonts. Calligraphy gives unique expression to every individual letterform within a design layout which is not the strength of typeface technologies no matter their sophistication (Zapf 2007: 76-7; Thomson 2004 versus Prestianni 2001). The usefulness of the digital medium to the calligrapher is not limited to the computer layout of the new Saint John's Bible prior to working by hand(Calderhead 2005). Writing directly in the digital medium is facilitated via graphics tablets (e.g Wacom and Toshiba) and is expected to grow in use with the introduction of Microsoft Windows Vista operating system ("Vista Pen Flicks") in 2007. Apple Inc. introduced a similar "shorthand" facility in their Tiger operating system in 2005. Graphics tablets facilitate calligraphic design work more than large size art pieces (Thomson 2004). The internet supports a number of online communities of calligraphers and hand lettering artists.

Tools

Main article: Writing implement

The principal tools for a calligrapher are the pen, which may be flat- or round-nibbed and the brush (Reaves & Schulte 2006; Child 1985; Lamb 1956). For some decorative purposes, multi-nibbed pens — steel brushes — can be used. However, works have also been made with felt-tip and ballpoint pens, although these works do not employ angled lines. Ink for writing is usually water-based and much less viscous than the oil based inks used in printing. High quality paper, which has good consistency of porousness, will enable cleaner lines,^{[citation needed]} although parchment or vellum is often used, as a knife can be used to erase work on them and a light box is not needed to allow lines to pass through it. In addition, light boxes and templates are often used in order to achieve straight lines without pencil markings detracting from the work. Lined paper, either for a light box or direct use, is most often lined every quarter or half inch, although inch spaces are occasionally used, such as with litterea unciales (hence the name), and college ruled paper acts as a guideline often as well. [1]

Batarde can be traced back to the late 14th, early 15th century and is so named as a gothic blend of the Textura and Quadrata.

See also

• Asemic Writing
• List of typographic features
• Typographic Emphasis
• Punchcutting
• Typography
• Typographic units
• Chirography
• List of prominent calligraphers
• calligraphy pen

Notes

1. ^ Charactères Chinois, by Edoardo Fazzioli, ISBN2-08-112004-6. Page 14 : "Ainsi naiquit le premier dictionnaire chinois, le San1 Cang1, avec ses 3.300 caractères." ~ "And thus was born the first Chinese dictionary, the San1 Cang1, with its 3.300 characters."
2. ^ 康熙字典 Kangxi Zidian, 1716. Scanned version available at www.kangxizidian.com. See by example the radicals 卩, 厂 or 广, p.41. The 2007 common shape for those characters don't allow clearly to "guess" the stroke order, but old versions, visible on the Kangxi Zidian p.41 clearly allow us to guess the stroke order.

References

• Alexander, J.J.G., Marrow, J.H., & Sandler, L.F. with Moodey, E., & Petev, T.T. (2005) The Splendor of the Word: Medieval and Renaissance Illuminated Manuscripts at the New York Public Library. New York Public Library/ Harvey Miller Publishers
• Backhouse, J. (1981) The Lindisfarne Gospels. Phaidon Press
• Baines, P., & Dixon, C. (2003) Signs: lettering in the environment. Lawrence King Publishing
• Bickham, G. (1743) The Universal Penman London. 1954 ed. Dover, New York
• Bloem, M., & Browne, M. (2002) Colin McCahon: A Question of Faith. Craig Potton Publishing
• Bose, S., & Jalal, A. (2003) Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political Economy. Routledge, p. 36
• British Library (2007). Collect Britain. Retrieved 22/02/2007, from http://www.collectbritain.co.uk/collections/illuminated/
• Brown, M.P. & Lovett, P. (1999) The Historical Source Book for Scribes. British Library
• Calderhead, C. (2005) Illuminating the Word: The Making of the Saint John's Bible. Liturgical Press
• Cardozo Kindersley, L.L. (2007) The Cardozo Kindersley Workshop. Retrieved 15/04/2007, from http://www.kindersleyworkshop.co.uk/
• Child, H. (1988) Calligraphy Today: Twentieth Century Tradition & Practice. Studio Books
• Child, H. ed. (1986) The Calligrapher's Handbook. Taplinger Publishing Co.
• Child, H. (1976) Calligraphy Today: A Survey of Tradition and Trends. Cassell & Collier Macmillan Publishers Ltd.
• Child, H. (1963) Calligraphy Today: A Survey of Tradition and Trends. Watson-Guptill Publications
• Cinamon, G. (2000) Rudolf Koch: Letterer, Type Designer, Teacher. Oak Knoll Press
• Cockerell, S. (1945) from "Tributes to Edward Johnston" in Child, H. & Howes, J. (ed.s, 1986) Lessons in Formal Writing, pp. 21-30.
• Daniels, P.T & Bright, W. (1996) The World's Writing Systems Oxford University Press, Oxford U.K
• de Hamel, C. (2001a) The Book. A History of the Bible. Phaidon Press
• de Hamel, C (2001b) The British Library Guide to Manuscript Illumination. British Library
• de Hamel, C. (1994) A History of Illuminated Manuscripts. Phaidon Press
• de Hamel, C. (1992) Scribes and Illuminators. University of Toronto Press
• Diringer, D. (1968) The Alphabet: A Key to the History of Mankind 3rd Ed. Volume 1 Hutchinson & Co. London
• Fraser, M., & Kwiatowski, W. (2006) Ink and Gold: Islamic Calligraphy. Sam Fogg Ltd. London
• Gaur, A. (2000) Literacy and the Politics of Writing. Intellect Books, p. 98
• Geddes, A., & Dion, C. (2004) Miracle: a celebration of new life. Photogenique Publishers Auckland.
• Gilderdale, P. (2006) "What's in a grip? A study of historical pen holds", Letter Arts Review 21(1): 10-27.
• Gilderdale, P. (1999) "The Great Copperplate Myth", Letter Arts Review 15(1): 38-47.
• Gray, N. (1986) A History of Lettering: Creative Experiment and Letter Identity. Godine
• Gray, N. (1971) Lettering as Drawing: Part I The Moving Line 1982 Ed. Taplinger Publishing C. New York
• Green, R. (2003). Bulley Bible (1969-83). Retrieved 28/10/2006, 2006, from http://palimpsest.stanford.edu/byform/mailing-lists/bookarts/2003/01/msg00132.html
• Harris, D. (1991) Calligraphy: Inspiration, Innovation, Communication. Anaya, London.
• Henning, W.E. (2002) An elegant hand : the golden age of American penmanship and calligraphy ed. Melzer, P. Oak Knoll Press New Castle, Delaware
• Herringham, C.J. (transl. 1899) The Book of the Art of Cennino Cennini, an English translation from the Italian
• Hewitt, W.G. (1944-1953). Letters of William Graily Hewitt to Sidney Feinberg. Retrieved 15/04/2007, from http://www.lib.udel.edu/ud/spec/findaids/hewitt.htm
• Hewitt, G. (1930) Lettering: For Students & Craftsmen. Pentalic 1976 ed.
• International Typeface Corporation (1982) International Calligraphy Today. Watson-Guptill Publ. New York
• Jackson, D. (1981) The Story of Writing. The Calligraphy Centre
• Johnston, E. (1906) Writing, Illuminating & Lettering. Dover Publication 1995 ed.
• Johnston, E. (1909) Manuscript & Inscription Letters: For schools and classes and for the use of craftsmen, plate 6. San Vito Press & Double Elephant Press 10th Impression
• Kapr, A. (1991) "Calligraphy 91" in Schreibwerkstaat Klingspor Offenbach
• Kerr, D.J. (2006) Amassing Treasures for All Times: Sir George Grey, Colonial Bookman and Collector. University of Otago Press/Oak Knoll Press
• Knight, S. (1998) Historical Scripts: From Classical Times to the Renaissance. Oak Knoll Press
• Knight, S. "The Roman Alphabet" in Daniels, P.T & Bright, W. (1996) The World's Writing Systems Oxford University Press, Oxford U.K, pp 312-332
• Lamb, C.M. ed. (1956) Calligrapher's Handbook. Pentalic 1976 ed.
• Letter Arts Review
• Luthra, H.L () A Text Book of General Studies Vol II., p. 63
• Mediavilla, C. (1996) Calligraphy. Scirpus Publications
• Mitter, P. (2001) Indian Art. Oxford University Press, p. 100
• Morris, W. (1882) From "Making the Best of It" in Hopes and Fears for Art. 2006 ed. Hard Press
• Neugebauer, F. (1979) The Mystic Art of Written Forms
• Prestianni, J. (2001) Calligraphic Type Design in the Digital Age. Gingko Press
• Pott, G. (2006) Kalligrafie: Intensiv Training Verlag Hermann Schmidt Mainz
• Pott, G. (2005) Kalligrafie:Erste Hilfe und Schrift-Training mit Muster-Alphabeten Verlag Hermann Schmidt Mainz
• Propfe, J. (2005) SchreibKunstRaume: Kalligraphie im Raum Verlag George D.W. Callwey GmbH & Co.K.G. Munich
• Reaves, M., & Schulte, E. (2006) Brush Lettering: An Instructional Manual in Western Brush Calligraphy Revised Edition, Design Books New York.
• Renard, J. (1999) Responses to 101 Questions on Buddhism. Paulist Press. Religion / World, pp 23-24
• Thomson, G. (2004) Digital Calligraphy with Photoshop. Thomson Learning
• Tresser, J. (2006) The Technique of Raised Gilding 2nd Ed. CD-ROM
• Trinity College Library Dublin (2006) The Book of Kells DVD-ROM.
• Ver Berkmoes, R. () Bali e Lombok p. 45
• Walther, I.F., & Wolf, N. (2005) Masterpieces of Illumination: The world's most beautiful illuminated manuscripts from 400 to 1600. Taschen
• Whitley, K.P. (2000) The History and Technique of Manuscript Gilding. Oak Knoll Press
• Wieck, R.S. (1983) Late Medieval and Renaissance Illuminated Manuscripts 1350-1525 in the Houghton Library. Harvard College Library
• Williams, R.B. (2004) Williams On South Asian Religions And Immigration: Collected Works By Raymond Brady Williams. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., p. 61
• Zapf, H. (2007) Alphabet Stories: A Chronicle of Technical Develoments Cary Graphic Arts Press Rochester New York
• Zapf, H. (2006) The world of Alphabets: A kaleidoscope of drawings and letterforms, CD-ROM

External links

• Caligraft - Computational calligraphy
• Kaligrafos - The Dallas Calligraphy Society A non-profit guild promoting the calligraphic arts
• New Zealand Calligraphers A national network of affiliated calligraphy guilds
• The Edward Johnston Foundation - Research centre for calligraphy and lettering arts
• Inkway Mongolian Calligraphy
• Modern Calligraphy Collection. Prints & Books. Victoria and Albert Museum. Retrieved on 2007-08-27.

Islamic calligraphy

• Calligraphy Islamic - Islamic Calligraphy Online
• Gallery of Arabic calligraphy - National Institute for Technology and Liberal Education
• Samples of Islamic calligraphy
• Islamic Calligraphy in the Library of Congress, Washington D.C.
• Islamic Calligraphy Articles and examples of Islamic-Turkish Calligraphy (in Turkish). (Click "Galeri" graphic gallery.)

Typography terminology
Page	Pagination · Recto and verso · Margin · Column · Canons of page construction
Paragraph	Widows and orphans · Leading · River · Baseline · Median · Alignment · Justification
Character	Ligature · Letter-spacing · Kerning · Majuscule · Minuscule · Initial · x-height · Ascender · Descender · Diacritics · Counter · Subscript · Superscript
Style	Serif · Italic · Slab serif · Sans-serif · Blackletter · Script · Dingbat
Punctuation	Hanging punctuation · Hyphenation · Curly quotes · En dash · Em dash
Typesetting	Type design · Type foundry · Movable type · Calligraphy · Phototypesetting · Letterpress · Typeface · Font · Computer font · Point · Pica · Cicero · Em · En · Lorem ipsum · Hamburgefonts · Punchcutting
Digital typography	Font formats · Typesetting software · Character encoding · Rasterization · Hinting

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