candle

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Background

One of the earliest forms of portable illumination, candles have served vital functions for humankind throughout history, a fact chronicled through the discovery of candles or candle-like objects in virtually every society. Historians believe the original candle may have been invented by primitive men who dipped dried branches in animal fat, thus producing a slow-burning and reliable source of light. Reliefs belonging to the ancient Egyptians depict the use of candles by writers and philosophers who worked well after sundown. These early candles were most likely developed from tapers that were made of fibrous materials mixed with wax or tallow (the white, nearly tasteless fat of cattle or sheep that was also used to make soap, margarine, and lubricants). As far back as 3000 B.C., dish-shaped candles were used on the island of Crete.

Candles have also been used for religious purposes. The Bible, for instance, makes numerous references to the use of candles, including the story of King Solomon who, after building the Temple, used ten candle-sticks to light the north and south ends of the structure. In the Middle Ages, candlemaking became a popular occupation, as evidenced by the creation of many candlemakers' guilds throughout Europe. Later, candles were used as a means of keeping time. At auctions, the bidding time was limited by inserting a pin into a candle and letting the wax melt until the pin dropped, thus concluding that period of time.

Although the materials that comprise a candle have changed through the years, the art of candlemaking has remained surprisingly similar to the original production processes. Candle wicks were, at first, made of reeds or rushes; eventually, various natural fibers were used. In 1824, Frenchman Jean-Jacques Cambaraceres introduced an important refinement in wick technology with the plaited wick, which burned more evenly than unplaited wicks. Twisted or plaited cotton still makes up most wicks today.

Animal or vegetable fats were used for the first candles. As candlemaking technology progressed, beeswax became widely used, mainly because of its pleasing odor and the absence of the mess that melting fats produced.

After the Revolutionary War, the whaling industry in America skyrocketed. However, not every type of whale was cherished solely for its blubber. The sperm whale was also used for its spermaceti—the wax taken from the oil of this huge mammal. This wax was used extensively as the fishing industry began to expand. The spermaceti candle was popular because it had no acrid odor, did not soften in summer temperatures, and burned evenly. Ozokerite, a colorless mineral hydrocarbon wax with a high melting point, was also popular in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. As candle technology advanced, animal fats were separated, leaving behind more desirable solid fatty acids such as stearine that had no odor and gave a brighter light. Paraffin, a wax crystallized from petroleum, became popular during the 1860s and was eventually blended with spermaceti and ceresin—a byproduct of refined petroleum oil—to create a more durable wax.

The original candles were produced through the dipping method. Dating back to the Middle Ages, this method used wicks made from dried rushes, which were peeled on all but one side, revealing the pith. The wicks were repeatedly dipped into the molten fat until the fat had stuck to the wick at a desired thickness. Beeswax candles were constructed using both the dipping method and pouring method. In the pouring method, the melted beeswax is poured over a suspended cotton wick while the wick is simultaneously and manually twirled. After a sufficient amount of wax has gathered at the bottom of the wick, the candled is reversed and poured from the other end.

Large-scale manufacture of candles became a reality only after 1834, when Joseph Morgan introduced the first mass-production candlemaking machine. Today's modern machines are strikingly similar to that original machine, with speed, accuracy and finished quality the only major differences.

Raw Materials

As mentioned earlier, the types of wax used in the construction of candles have changed greatly during the past few centuries. Today, substances are often mixed together to create stronger candles with higher melting points. In the United States, standard commercial candles usually contain 60 percent paraffin, 35 percent stearic acid, and 5 percent beeswax. Some candles contain small amounts of candelilla or carnauba waxes (from the carnauba palm) to regulate the softening or melting point of the finished wax. Beeswax candles are made of only pure insect wax and paraffin plus a small amount of stiffening wax. The wick is made of a high grade of cotton or linen. The material is woven (or braided) so that it will burn in one direction and will curl so that its end remains in the candle flame's oxidizing zone for even and intense burning. Often, wire-core wicks are used. These wicks have a wire center that allows them to burn slightly hotter than cotton and remain erect in the melted wax.

Decorative candles often use waxes other than beeswax and paraffin. Bayberry wax (or wax myrtle, as it is sometimes referred to) is derived from the fruit of the bayberry bush and has a distinctive aroma making it especially popular for use at Christmas. Non-burning wax is used in those parts of a candle—mostly the shells or ornaments of decorative candles—that are not intended to burn.

The Manufacturing
Process

The manufacturing of candles consists of three steps: preparation of the wicking, preparation of the wax base, and continuous molding or extrusion of the finished candles.

Making the wick

• The cotton or linen wicks are braided and then treated with chemicals or inorganic salt solutions so that they bend at a 90 degree angle when burning. This angle allows the end to remain in the outer mantle of the flame and causes it to be shortened naturally. If the wick is not treated, it will burn too quickly and the flame will be extinguished by the melted wax. However, if the wick burns too slowly, then the amount of exposed wick increases and the candle becomes dangerous.

Preparing the wax base

• First, the wax is heated and melted into a clear, near-liquid state in huge metal kettles. Wax melted by direct flame can become dark-colored or can contain small pieces of carbon char. Next, the molten wax must be carefully filtered to remove impurities that may interfere with the burning process. Any desired perfumes and dyes are added at this time. Although most wax arriving at the manufacturer conforms to strict purity standards, many companies still filter their wax to be sure of a high-quality finished product.

Molding the candle

• Since the invention of Morgan's first candlemaking machine, the construction of candles has been performed mainly by continuous molding machines, although manual machines are still used by some companies. Continuous molding machines are designed to make candles in groups ranging anywhere from 50 to 500 per load. The entire process takes almost 30 minutes per load.
• Prior to the pouring of the wax, the wick is pulled through the tip of the mold. This tip has a hole in it through which the wick passes from a spool located beneath the entire molding machine. The molds, which are made of tin, have polished interior surfaces and are slightly tapered for easier ejection of the finished candle.
• The wax is cooled to slightly above its melting point and poured into a molding table located above the molds. The wax then works its way into each mold; the molds are pre-heated so the wax will flow evenly into them. After the wax is poured, a jacket around each mold is filled with cold water to speed up the solidification process. Once the wax has solidified, the finished candles are pulled upwards out of the molds, allowing the wicks to again thread through the molds in preparation for the next load of candles. The wicks are snipped, and the process begins again. Excess wax is trimmed, collected and re-used. The continuous molding process is used to make cylindrical, tapered or fluted candles as long as they can be easily ejected from the mold.

Extrusion

• An alternate method uses extrusion, a process in which crushed paraffin wax is forced through a heated steel die under extreme pressure. At the same time, the wax is consolidated around the wick. Unlike molding machines, extrusion machines produce a continuous length of candle, which is then cut into specific sizes. Next, the tips of the candles are formed by rotation cutters, and the candles are sent to an automated packing machine.

Where To Learn More

Books

Constable, David. Candlemaking. Schwartz, Arthur & Co., Inc., 1993.

Millington, Deborah. Tradition Candle-making: Simple Methods of Manufacture. Intermediate Technology Development Group of North America, 1992.

Shaw, Ray. Candle Art. William Morrow, 1973.

Taylor, Richard. Beeswax Molding & Candle Making. Linden Books, 1985.

Webster, William and Claire McMullen. Contemporary Candlemaking. Doubleday, 1972.

Webster, William and Claire McMullen. The Complete Book of Candlemaking. Doubleday, 1973.

Periodicals

Rupp, Becky. "The Art of Candle Making," Blair & Ketchum's Country Journal. January, 1986, p. 57.

[Article by: Jim Acton]

luminous intensity Of a different value in different countries, redefined with minor changes, first as a ‘new candle’, then as the candela. See candela.

(Candle Corporation, El Segundo, CA) A leading software company specializing in performance monitoring and systems availability tools for the mainframe environment that was acquired by IBM in 2004. It was founded in 1976 by Aubrey Chernick, who developed OMEGAMON, the first real-time performance monitor for MVS. Candle provided a wide variety of products for managing systems and applications, and in 1996, expanded into middleware.

Download Computer Desktop Encyclopedia to your PC, iPhone or Android.

At least two candles must be used for kindling the lamps (hadlakat ha-nerot), in honor of the dual commandment to "remember" and "observe" the Sabbath day (Ex. 20:8; Deut. 5:12). This ceremony, performed before sunset on the eve of Sabbaths and Festivals, is thought to symbolize the light and joy shed by God's holy day (Ps. 97:11; Est. 8:16; cf. Prov. 6:23, 13:9). The practice of leaving candles to burn after the Sabbath had commenced was a geonic innovation aimed against the form of observance in vogue among the Karaites. Lighting the Sabbath candles is traditionally the Jewish housewife's prerogative (Shab. 2:6-7), but any other adult member of the family may do it---and pronounce the appropriate benediction---in her absence.

The Havdalah ceremony which takes place at the Sabbath's termination includes the lighting of a candle made of at least two intertwined wicks; otherwise, two ordinary candles are used with their lighted wicks held together. This is because the text of the benediction recited over them ("who creates the lights of the fire") has fire in the plural.

In the case of ḥanukkah lamps, Jewish law gives preference to those using olive oil, since the miracle of Ḥanukkah involved the Temple Menorah and a small cruse of oil that lasted for eight days. Candles are nevertheless acceptable, and there is even a view that they are preferable, because of the mess that oil lamps often make. A candle is also used in the search for Leaven on the eve of Passover, and candles or tapers are sometimes used in a darkened synagogue when the Book of Lamentations and elegies are read on the eve of Tishah Be-Av. Synagogues customarily have an Eternal Light (ner tamid) burning in front of the Ark, but there is no halakhic requirement for the use of oil, and the eternal light in many synagogues today is powered by electricity or gas.

In certain Orthodox circles, it is customary at a wedding for the fathers of the bride and of the groom to accompany the groom down the aisle or to the ḥuppah (see Marriage) with each holding a lighted candle. The two mothers then accompany the bride, also holding lighted candles.

A more general practice is lighting candles in rituals connected with the dead, lamps and lights being symbolic of man's Soul, as reflected in the verse (Prov. 20:27), "The spirit of man is the lamp of the Lord." Candles are thus lit when a person dies (see Corpse; Death), in the house of a bereaved family throughout the seven (shivah) days of Mourning, on the anniversary (Yahrzeit) of the death of a close relative, and on those days when yizkor Memorial Prayers for the dead are recited in the synagogue. Oriental Jews light candles on the graves of their venerated rabbis. It is also customary for a Memorial Light to be kept burning throughout the Day of Atonement (and in Israel on Yom ha-Sho'ah, Holocaust Memorial Day, among other occasions).

In religious ritual, candles express a widespread symbolism whereby light is equated with goodness and spirituality—specifically, in Christianity, with Christ as the Light of the World. In all Catholic and many Anglican churches, there must be two alight during all services; they feature in the communal liturgy at Advent, Candlemas, and Easter; they are often used in processions and baptisms, and placed beside deathbeds and coffins. They also are a material expression of individual prayer; hence the customs of buying a small candle (or its modern equivalent, a night-light) and leaving it to burn before an altar or statue, and carrying candles during vigils of mourning or protest. Paradoxically, they also express celebration, so have a place on Christmas trees, birthday cakes, and dinner tables.

In medieval Catholicism, candles blessed by a priest (especially at Candlemas) were kept at home to protect the house against demons, witchcraft, and thunderstorms, and to be lit for the sick and dying; they were one of the commonest gifts offered in pilgrimage; people left money to ensure that lights would burn in front of specified altars, crosses, or statues in their parish church, especially during Mass (Duffy, 1992: 16-22, 134, 146-9; Finucane, 1977: 95-6).

Religious ritual is recalled in the idea that solemn cursing involves ‘bell, book, and candle’, and stories about ghost laying where the exorcist's candle must be kept alight. An ingenious variation of the latter concerns the ghost of ‘Old Coles’, who haunted a road between Bransford and Brocamin (Worcestershire): twelve parsons trapped him one dark night in a nearby pool, by the light of an inch of candle, bidding him stay there till the candle burnt out—and, to make sure he does, they threw the candle into the pool and filled it in (Hazlitt, 1905: 458).

Occasionally candles were used in magic; in 1843 a Mrs Bell in Norwich was said to have stuck a candle with pins in order to immobilize the arms and legs of a man she had quarrelled with (Hole, 1973: 91). Henderson reports two love spells, the first being from Durham, where a servant girl who kept a candle stump studded with pins explained, ‘It's to bring my sweetheart. Thou see'st, sometimes he's slow a-coming, and if I stick a candle-end full o' pins it always fetches him.’ His second account is from Buckinghamshire:

Damsels desirous of seeing their lovers would stick two pins through the candle they were burning, taking care that the pins passed through the wick. While doing this they recited the following verse:

It's not this candle alone I stick
But …'s heart I mean to prick
Whether he be asleep or awake
I'd have him come to me and speak.

By the time the candle burned down to the pins and went out, the lover would be certain to present himself.
(Henderson, 1879: 172-3; cf. Opie and Tatem, 1989: 55-6).

Candles lighted most American homes, public buildings, and streets until gas (1820s) and kerosene lamps (1850s) replaced them. Women in each family made many kinds of candles, from the common, made from tallow, to the expensive, made from beeswax. They also used a variety of other materials, such as bear grease, deer suet, bayberry, spermaceti, and well-rendered mutton fat. Every autumn, they filled leather or tin boxes with enough candles to last through the winter. To make candles, women first prepared wicks from rough hemp, milkweed, or cotton spun in large quantity. Then they under-took the lengthy task of dipping or molding several hundred candles by hand.

Homemakers were the exclusive candle makers until the 1700s, when itinerant candle makers could be hired. Later, professional chandlers prospered in the cities. Although factories were numerous after 1750, home dip-ping continued as late as 1880. The West Indies provided a large market for sperm candles, purchasing over 500,000 pounds of sperm and tallow candles from the colonies in 1768. The total production of candles from both factories and homes was valued at an estimated $8 million in 1810. The New England factories, the largest producers, imported supplies of fat from Russia. Large plants also existed in New Orleans, Louisiana; St. Louis, Missouri; and Hudson, New York. South Carolina and Georgia produced quantities of seeds and capsules from tallow trees used extensively for candle making in the South. Allied industries grew rapidly for making metal and pottery candle holders.

Bibliography

Cowan, Ruth Schwartz. A Social History of American Technology. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.

Wright, Louis B. Everyday Life in Colonial America. New York: Putnam, 1966.

—Lena G. FitzHugh/C. W.

To convert from candle/sq. cm to:

lamberts, multiply by 3.142.
lamberts, multiply by .487.

LearnThatWord.com is a free vocabulary and spelling program where you only pay for results!

• Optics - candle: former standard unit of luminous intensity, equal to five square millimeters of platinum at 1773.5 degrees C
• Functional Household Articles and Appliances - candle: molded or dipped mass of wax containing wick that may be burned for illumination

For other uses, see Candle (disambiguation).

A burning candle

A candle burning.

The motion of a candle flame shot with slow shutter speed and large aperture.

A candle is a solid block or cylinder of wax with an embedded wick, which is lit to provide light, and sometimes heat.^[1]

Today, most candles are made from paraffin. Candles can also be made from beeswax, soy, other plant waxes, and tallow (a by-product of beef-fat rendering). Gel candles are made from a mixture of mineral oil and a polymer.^[2]

A candle manufacturer is traditionally known as a chandler.^[3] Various devices have been invented to hold candles, from simple tabletop candle holders, to elaborate chandeliers.^[4]

The heat of the match used to light the candle melts and vaporizes a small amount of fuel. Once vaporized, the fuel combines with oxygen in the atmosphere to form a flame. This flame provides sufficient heat to keep the candle burning via a self-sustaining chain of events: the heat of the flame melts the top of the mass of solid fuel, the liquefied fuel then moves upward through the wick via capillary action, and the liquefied fuel is then vaporized to burn within the candle's flame.

The burning of the fuel takes place in several distinct regions (as evidenced by the various colors that can be seen within the candle's flame). Within the blue regions, hydrogen is being separated from the fuel and burned to form water vapor. The brighter, yellow part of the flame is the remaining carbon being oxidized to form carbon dioxide.^{[citation needed]}

As the mass of solid fuel is melted and consumed, the candle grows shorter. Portions of the wick that are not emitting vaporized fuel are consumed in the flame. The incineration of the wick limits the exposed length of the wick, thus maintaining a constant burning temperature and rate of fuel consumption. Some wicks require regular trimming with scissors (or a specialized wick trimmer), usually to about one-quarter inch (~0.7 cm), to promote slower, steady burning, and also to prevent smoking. In early times, the wick needed to be trimmed quite frequently, and special candle-scissors, referred to as "snuffers" until the 20th century, were produced for this purpose, often combined with an extinguisher. In modern candles, the wick is constructed so that it curves over as it burns (see picture on the right), so that the end of the wick gets oxygen and is then consumed by fire—a self-trimming wick.^[5]

Contents 1 Components 1.1 Wax 1.2 Wick 2 Characteristics 2.1 Light 2.2 Temperature 2.3 History of study 3 Hazards 4 Candle holders 5 Etymology 6 History 6.1 Types 6.2 Timekeeping 7 Use 7.1 Religion 8 See also 9 References 10 External links

Components

Wax

The candle can be made of paraffin (a byproduct of petroleum refining), stearin (now produced almost exclusively from palm waxes though initially manufactured from animal fats), beeswax (a byproduct of honey collection), gel (a mixture of resin and mineral oil), some plant waxes (generally palm, carnauba, bayberry, or soybean wax), tallow (rarely used since the introduction of affordable and cheap wax alternatives) or spermaceti (extracted from the head of a Sperm Whale). The size of the flame and corresponding rate of burning is controlled largely by the candle wick.

The most basic production method of candles generally entails melting the solid fuel by the controlled application of heat. The liquid is then poured into a mould or a wick is repeatedly immersed in the liquid to create a dipped tapered candle. Often fragrance oils, essential oils or aniline-based dye is added.

Candles made of beeswax burn more cleanly and release fewer chemicals than petroleum-based paraffin waxes.^[6] Highly refined paraffin wax, however, can burn as cleanly as natural waxes, creating fewer particulates during combustion than synthetic candles.^{[citation needed]} The type of wick and inclusion of any scents and/or dyes have a much greater impact on the release of compounds, particulates, and smoke, regardless of the base material. The cleanest burning candle will be well-constructed, unscented, undyed, and burn in a draught-free area. Candles will burn well when formulated waxes are blended together (soy, paraffin and other waxes),

This holder uses a spike to stabilise the candle.

A collection of lit candles on ornate candlesticks

A smoke film can be a concern to those who frequently burn a candle indoors and is also referred to as ghosting, carbon tracking, or carbon tracing.^{[citation needed]} Smoke can be produced when a candle does not burn the wax fuel completely. A scented candle can be a source of candle smoke deposits. Trimming candle wicks to about 6 millimetres (¼ in) or shorter will keep smoking to a minimum. A flickering flame will produce more smoke, therefore a candle should be burned in an area free from draught.^[7]

There are differing opinions about which kind of wax in a candle is best for the environment. Proponents of the soy wax candle note that the material is biodegradable.^{[citation needed]} Paraffin wax, as used in candle making, is also biodegradable. It also often meets the United States Food and Drug Administration criteria for use in foods and food contact.^{[citation needed]} Natural waxes have a neutral carbon footprint as carbon dioxide was removed from the air to produce the natural wax, which upon burning would not result in a net increase in carbon dioxide.^{[citation needed]}

Wick

Main article: Candle wick

A candle wick is a piece of string or cord that holds the flame of a candle. A candle wick works by capillary action, drawing ("wicking") the melted wax or fuel up to the flame. When the liquid fuel reaches the flame, it vaporizes and combusts. The candle wick influences how the candle burns. Important characteristics of the wick include diameter, stiffness, fire-resistance, and tethering.

Characteristics

Light

Based on measurements of a taper-type, paraffin wax candle, a modern candle typically burns at a steady rate of about 0.1 g/min, releasing heat at roughly 80 W.^[8] The light produced is about 13 lumens, for a luminous efficacy of about 0.16 lumens per watt (luminous efficacy of a source) - almost a hundred times lower than an incandescent light bulb.

The luminous intensity of a typical candle is thus approximately one candela. The SI unit, the candela, was in fact based on an older unit called the candlepower, which represented the luminous intensity emitted by a candle made to particular specifications (a "standard candle"). The modern unit is defined in a more precise and repeatable way, but was chosen such that a candle's luminous intensity is still about one candela.

Temperature

See also: Combustion

The hottest part of the flame is just above the very dull blue part to one side of the flame, at the base. At this point, the flame is about 1,400 °C. However note that this part of the flame is very small and releases little heat energy. The blue color is due to chemiluminescence, while the visible yellow color is due to radiative emission from hot soot particles. The soot is formed through a series of complex chemical reactions, leading from the fuel molecule through molecular growth, until multi-carbon ring compounds are formed. The thermal structure of a flame is complex, hundreds of degrees over very short distances leading to extremely steep temperature gradients. On average, the flame temperature is about 1,000 °C.^{[9][citation needed]} The color temperature is approximately 1,000 K.

History of study

One of Michael Faraday's significant works was The Chemical History of a Candle, where he gives an in-depth analysis of the evolutionary development, workings and science of candles.^[10]

Hazards

According to the U.S. National Fire Protection Association, candles are one of the leading sources of residential fires in the U.S. with almost 10% of civilian injuries and 6% of civilian fatalities from fire attributed to candles.^[11]

A candle flame that is longer than its laminar smoke point^[12] will emit soot. Soot inhalation has known health hazards. Proper wick trimming will substantially reduce soot emissions from most candles.

The liquid wax is hot and can cause skin burns, but the amount and temperature are generally rather limited and the burns are seldom serious. The best way to avoid getting burned from splashed wax is to use a candle snuffer instead of blowing on the flame. A candle snuffer is usually a small metal cup on the end of a long handle. When placed over the flame the oxygen supply is cut off. They were used daily when the candle was the main source of lighting a home, before electric lights were available.

Glass candle holders are sometimes cracked by thermal shock from the candle flame, particularly when the candle burns down to the end. When burning candles in glass holders or jars, users should avoid lighting candles with chipped or cracked containers, and stop use once 1/2 inch or less of wax remains.

A former worry regarding the safety of candles was that a lead core was used in the wicks to keep them upright in container candles. Without a stiff core, the wicks of a container candle could sag and drown in the deep wax pool. Concerns rose that the lead in these wicks would vaporize during the burning process, releasing lead vapors — a known health and developmental hazard. Lead core wicks have not been common since the 1970s. Today, most metal-cored wicks use zinc or a zinc alloy, which has become the industry standard. Wicks made from specially treated paper and cotton are also available.

Candle holders

Orthodox pilgrim is lighting a candle on chandelier in Orthodox church, Ukraine.

Decorative candle holders, especially those shaped as a pedestal, are called candlesticks; if multiple candle tapers are held, the term candelabrum is also used. The root form of chandelier is from the word for candle, but now usually refers to an electric fixture. The word chandelier is sometimes now used to describe a hanging fixture designed to hold multiple tapers.

Many candle holders use a friction-tight socket to keep the candle upright. In this case, a candle that is slightly too wide will not fit in the holder, and a candle that is slightly too narrow will wobble. Candles that are too big can be trimmed to fit with a knife; candles that are too small can be fitted with aluminium foil. Traditionally, the candle and candle holders were made in the same place, so they were appropriately sized, but international trade has combined the modern candle with existing holders, which makes the ill-fitting candle more common. This friction tight socket is only needed for the federals and the tapers. For tea light candles, there are a variety of candle holders, including small glass holders and elaborate multi candle stands. The same is true for votives. Wall sconces are available for tea light and votive candles. For pillar type candles, the assortment of candle holders is broad. A fireproof plate, such as a glass plate or small mirror, is a candle holder for a pillar style candle. A pedestal of any kind, with the appropriate-sized fireproof top, is another option. A large glass bowl with a large flat bottom and tall mostly vertical curved sides is called a hurricane. The pillar style candle is placed at the bottom center of the hurricane. A hurricane on a pedestal is sometimes sold as a unit.

Etymology

The word candle comes from Middle English candel, from Old English and from Anglo-Norman candele, both from Latin candla, from candre, to shine.^[1]

History

A rectangular candle.

Main article: History of candle making

The earliest known candles originated in China around 200 BC, and were made from whale fat. Candles did not appear in Europe or the Middle East until sometime after 400 AD, due largely to the availability of olive oil for burning in lamps.^[13] The early European candle was made from various forms of natural fat, tallow, and wax. In the 18th century, spermaceti, oil produced by the sperm whale, was used to produce a superior candle.^[14] Late in the 18th century, colza oil and rapeseed oil came into use as much cheaper substitutes.

"Until of late years, candles were solely manufactured from bees' wax, spermaceti, or tallow. The application of scientific chemical research...all the best candles are now made from the pure solid and crystallizable margaric and stearic acids. These are freed from the fluid oleic acid, and from glycerine, which exist in combination with them in ordinary tallow, as well as from other analogous substances, as from paraffin (a carbo-hygroneous substance resembling spermaceti, prepared from tar and peat), the stearic and margaric acid in the cocoa-nut oil and the palm oil, besides the old substance spermaceti, and wax both vegetable and animal."

—Candles, -Eighth edition, Encyclopedia Britannica, 1853

Paraffin was first distilled in 1830, and revolutionized candle-making, as it was an inexpensive material which produced a high-quality, odorless candle that burned reasonably cleanly. The industry was devastated soon after, however, by the distillation of kerosene (confusingly also called paraffin oil or just paraffin). Recently resin based candles that are freestanding and transparent have been developed, with the claim that they burn longer than traditional paraffin candles. They are usually scented and oil based.

In the Middle Ages in Europe, tallow candles were the most common candle. By the 13th century, candle making had become a guild craft in England and France. The candle makers (chandlers) went from house to house making candles from the kitchen fats saved for that purpose, or made and sold their own candles from small candle shops.^[15]

Types

The earliest type of candle may have been Tallow.^{[citation needed]}

Timekeeping

Main article: Candle clock

With the fairly consistent and measurable burning of a candle, a common use was to tell the time. The candle designed for this purpose might have time measurements, usually in hours, marked along the wax. The Song dynasty in China (960–1279) used candle-clocks.^[16] By the 18th century, candle-clocks were being made with weights set into the sides of the candle. As the candle melted, the weights fell off and made a noise as they fell into a bowl. A form of candle-clock was used in coal-mining until the 20th century.^{[citation needed]}

In the days leading to Christmas some people burn a candle a set amount to represent each day, as marked on the candle. The type of candle used in this way is called the Advent candle,^[17] although this term is also used to refer to a candle that decorates an Advent wreath.

Use

Before the invention of electric lighting candles and oil lamps were commonly used for illumination. In areas without electricity, they are still used routinely. Until the 20th century, candles were more common in northern Europe. In southern Europe and the Mediterranean, oil lamps predominated. In the developed world today, candles are used mainly for their aesthetic value and scent, particularly to set a soft, warm, or romantic ambiance, for emergency lighting during electrical power failures, and for religious or ritual purposes. Scented candles are used in aromatherapy.

Religion

Main article: Ceremonial use of lights#Candles

An advent candle burning on the fourth day of December.

Candles are used in the religious ceremonies of many faiths.

See also

• Bobèche
• Candle clock
• Candle snuffer
• Candle warmer
• Candle wick
• Candelabra
• Candlepower
• Candlestick
• The Chemical History of a Candle
• Michael Faraday
• Fire
• History of candle making
• Julleuchter
• Rushlight
• Singing candle
• Stearic acid
• Tealight
• Trick candles
• Trudon
• Unity candle

References

1. ^ ^{a b} "Candle". The Free Dictionary By Farlex. http://www.thefreedictionary.com/candle. Retrieved 2012-19-05. 
2. ^ Camp, William R.; Vollenweider; Jeffrey L.; Schutz; Wendy J. (12). "Scented candle gel". United States Patent 5,964,905. 
3. ^ "Chandler". The Free Dictionary By Farlex. http://www.thefreedictionary.com/chandler. Retrieved 2012-19-05. 
4. ^ "chandelier". The Free Dictionary By Farlex. http://www.thefreedictionary.com/chandelier. Retrieved 2012-19-05. 
5. ^ European Candle Association FAQ.
6. ^ Main, Emily. Study: Candle Chemicals Pollute Indoor Air. Rodale News. November 30, 2008.
7. ^ Utah News from KSL-TV, Salt Lake City, Utah
8. ^ Hamins, Anthony; Bundy, Matthew; Dillon, Scott E. (November 2005). "Characterization of Candle Flames" (PDF). Journal of Fire Protection Engineering 15. doi:10.1177/1042391505053163. http://fire.nist.gov/bfrlpubs/fire05/PDF/f05141.pdf. 
9. ^ On Fire - Background Essay, NOVA on Teachers' Domain, WGBH. Retrieved January 5, 2009.
10. ^ http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1860Faraday-candle.asp
11. ^ John Hall, NFPA 2009, http://www.nfpa.org/assets/files//PDF/Research/Fire_overview_2009.pdf.
12. ^ K.M. Allan, J.R. Kaminski, J.C. Bertrand, J. Head, Peter B. Sunderland, Laminar Smoke Points of Wax Candles, Combustion Science and Technology 181 (2009) 800-811.
13. ^ Malbrough, Ray T. (1998). The Magical Power of the Saints: Evocation and Candle Rituals. Llewellyn Worldwide. p. 68. ISBN 1-56718-456-1. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=0gc3AMU7U2IC&pg=PA68&dq=candle+making+egypt+3000+beeswax. 
14. ^ Shillito, M. Larry; David J. De Marle (1992). Value: Its Measurement, Design, and Management. Wiley-IEEE. p. 33. ISBN 0-471-52738-6. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=e01LfamiCpUC&pg=PA33&dq=Spermaceti+candle+18th+century#PPA33,M1. 
15. ^ "History of candles". National Candle Association. http://www.candles.org/about_history.html. Retrieved 2012-19-05. 
16. ^ Whitrow, G. J. (1989). Time in History: Views of Time from Prehistory to the Present Day. Oxford University Press. pp. 90–91. ISBN 0-19-285211-6. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=o8Nb5KLBxVQC&pg=PA91&dq=Sung+dynasty+incense+clocks#PPA91,M1. 
17. ^ Geddes, Gordon; Jane Griffiths. Christianity. Heinemann. p. 89. ISBN 0-435-30693-6. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Wn-38NunUnAC&pg=PT98&dq=advent+candle#PPT98,M1. 

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Candles

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Candles

Wikisource has the text of the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia article Candles.

• National Candle Association of the U.S.
• The Chemical History of a Candle by Michael Faraday
• European Candle Association (ECA)
• Latin American Candle Manufacturers Association (ALAFAVE)

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Dansk (Danish)
n. - lys
v. tr. - gennemlyse (æg)

idioms:

• cannot hold a candle to    kan ikke måle sig med

Nederlands (Dutch)
kaars, eieren schouwen

Français (French)
n. - bougie, chandelle
v. tr. - allumer une bougie

idioms:

• cannot hold a candle to    ne pas arriver à la cheville de

Deutsch (German)
n. - Kerze
v. - gegen das Licht halten, durchleuchten

idioms:

• cannot hold a candle to    kann jmndm. nicht das Wasser reichen

Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - κερί

idioms:

• cannot hold a candle to    δεν πιάνω χαρτωσιά μπροστά σε

Italiano (Italian)
candela

idioms:

• cannot hold a candle to    non é degno di pulire le scarpe a, non regge il confronto con
• not worth the candle    non vale la pena

Português (Portuguese)
n. - vela (f)

idioms:

• cannot hold a candle to    não chega aos pés de
• not worth the candle    não justifica o esforço

Русский (Russian)
свеча

idioms:

• cannot hold a candle to    не годиться в подметки кому-либо
• not worth the candle    не стоить свеч

Español (Spanish)
n. - vela, candela, cirio
v. tr. - examinar al trasluz

idioms:

• cannot hold a candle to    no le llega ni a la suela del zapato

Svenska (Swedish)
n. - ljus

中文（简体）(Chinese (Simplified))
蜡烛, 烛光, 烛形物, 对着光检查

idioms:

• cannot hold a candle to    与...不能相比, 比不上...

中文（繁體）(Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 蠟燭, 燭光, 燭形物
v. tr. - 對著光檢查

idioms:

• cannot hold a candle to    與...不能相比, 比不上...

한국어 (Korean)
n. - 양초, 촉광
v. tr. - 불빛에 비춰 조사하다

日本語 (Japanese)
n. - カンデラ, ろうそく

العربيه (Arabic)
‏(الاسم) شمعه‏

עברית (Hebrew)
n. - ‮נר‬
v. tr. - ‮בדק טריות ביצה באור‬

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