Dictionary:

candle

  (kăn'dl)

1. 1. A solid, usually cylindrical mass of tallow, wax, or other fatty substance with an axially embedded wick that is burned to provide light.
   2. Something resembling this object in shape or use.
2. Physics.
   1. (Abbr. c) An obsolete unit of luminous intensity, originally defined in terms of a wax candle with standard composition and equal to 1.02 candelas. Also called international candle.
   2. See candela.

To examine (an egg) for freshness or fertility by holding it before a bright light.

[Middle English candel, from Old English and from Anglo-Norman candele, both from Latin candēla, from candēre, to shine.]

Background

One of the earliest forms of portable illumination, candles have served vital functions for humankind throughout history, a fact chronicled through the discovery of candles or candle-like objects in virtually every society. Historians believe the original candle may have been invented by primitive men who dipped dried branches in animal fat, thus producing a slow-burning and reliable source of light. Reliefs belonging to the ancient Egyptians depict the use of candles by writers and philosophers who worked well after sundown. These early candles were most likely developed from tapers that were made of fibrous materials mixed with wax or tallow (the white, nearly tasteless fat of cattle or sheep that was also used to make soap, margarine, and lubricants). As far back as 3000 B.C., dish-shaped candles were used on the island of Crete.

Candles have also been used for religious purposes. The Bible, for instance, makes numerous references to the use of candles, including the story of King Solomon who, after building the Temple, used ten candle-sticks to light the north and south ends of the structure. In the Middle Ages, candlemaking became a popular occupation, as evidenced by the creation of many candlemakers' guilds throughout Europe. Later, candles were used as a means of keeping time. At auctions, the bidding time was limited by inserting a pin into a candle and letting the wax melt until the pin dropped, thus concluding that period of time.

Although the materials that comprise a candle have changed through the years, the art of candlemaking has remained surprisingly similar to the original production processes. Candle wicks were, at first, made of reeds or rushes; eventually, various natural fibers were used. In 1824, Frenchman Jean-Jacques Cambaraceres introduced an important refinement in wick technology with the plaited wick, which burned more evenly than unplaited wicks. Twisted or plaited cotton still makes up most wicks today.

Animal or vegetable fats were used for the first candles. As candlemaking technology progressed, beeswax became widely used, mainly because of its pleasing odor and the absence of the mess that melting fats produced.

After the Revolutionary War, the whaling industry in America skyrocketed. However, not every type of whale was cherished solely for its blubber. The sperm whale was also used for its spermaceti—the wax taken from the oil of this huge mammal. This wax was used extensively as the fishing industry began to expand. The spermaceti candle was popular because it had no acrid odor, did not soften in summer temperatures, and burned evenly. Ozokerite, a colorless mineral hydrocarbon wax with a high melting point, was also popular in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. As candle technology advanced, animal fats were separated, leaving behind more desirable solid fatty acids such as stearine that had no odor and gave a brighter light. Paraffin, a wax crystallized from petroleum, became popular during the 1860s and was eventually blended with spermaceti and ceresin—a byproduct of refined petroleum oil—to create a more durable wax.

The original candles were produced through the dipping method. Dating back to the Middle Ages, this method used wicks made from dried rushes, which were peeled on all but one side, revealing the pith. The wicks were repeatedly dipped into the molten fat until the fat had stuck to the wick at a desired thickness. Beeswax candles were constructed using both the dipping method and pouring method. In the pouring method, the melted beeswax is poured over a suspended cotton wick while the wick is simultaneously and manually twirled. After a sufficient amount of wax has gathered at the bottom of the wick, the candled is reversed and poured from the other end.

Large-scale manufacture of candles became a reality only after 1834, when Joseph Morgan introduced the first mass-production candlemaking machine. Today's modern machines are strikingly similar to that original machine, with speed, accuracy and finished quality the only major differences.

Raw Materials

As mentioned earlier, the types of wax used in the construction of candles have changed greatly during the past few centuries. Today, substances are often mixed together to create stronger candles with higher melting points. In the United States, standard commercial candles usually contain 60 percent paraffin, 35 percent stearic acid, and 5 percent beeswax. Some candles contain small amounts of candelilla or carnauba waxes (from the carnauba palm) to regulate the softening or melting point of the finished wax. Beeswax candles are made of only pure insect wax and paraffin plus a small amount of stiffening wax. The wick is made of a high grade of cotton or linen. The material is woven (or braided) so that it will burn in one direction and will curl so that its end remains in the candle flame's oxidizing zone for even and intense burning. Often, wire-core wicks are used. These wicks have a wire center that allows them to burn slightly hotter than cotton and remain erect in the melted wax.

Decorative candles often use waxes other than beeswax and paraffin. Bayberry wax (or wax myrtle, as it is sometimes referred to) is derived from the fruit of the bayberry bush and has a distinctive aroma making it especially popular for use at Christmas. Non-burning wax is used in those parts of a candle—mostly the shells or ornaments of decorative candles—that are not intended to burn.

The Manufacturing
Process

The manufacturing of candles consists of three steps: preparation of the wicking, preparation of the wax base, and continuous molding or extrusion of the finished candles.

Making the wick

• The cotton or linen wicks are braided and then treated with chemicals or inorganic salt solutions so that they bend at a 90 degree angle when burning. This angle allows the end to remain in the outer mantle of the flame and causes it to be shortened naturally. If the wick is not treated, it will burn too quickly and the flame will be extinguished by the melted wax. However, if the wick burns too slowly, then the amount of exposed wick increases and the candle becomes dangerous.

Preparing the wax base

• First, the wax is heated and melted into a clear, near-liquid state in huge metal kettles. Wax melted by direct flame can become dark-colored or can contain small pieces of carbon char. Next, the molten wax must be carefully filtered to remove impurities that may interfere with the burning process. Any desired perfumes and dyes are added at this time. Although most wax arriving at the manufacturer conforms to strict purity standards, many companies still filter their wax to be sure of a high-quality finished product.

Molding the candle

• Since the invention of Morgan's first candlemaking machine, the construction of candles has been performed mainly by continuous molding machines, although manual machines are still used by some companies. Continuous molding machines are designed to make candles in groups ranging anywhere from 50 to 500 per load. The entire process takes almost 30 minutes per load.
• Prior to the pouring of the wax, the wick is pulled through the tip of the mold. This tip has a hole in it through which the wick passes from a spool located beneath the entire molding machine. The molds, which are made of tin, have polished interior surfaces and are slightly tapered for easier ejection of the finished candle.
• The wax is cooled to slightly above its melting point and poured into a molding table located above the molds. The wax then works its way into each mold; the molds are pre-heated so the wax will flow evenly into them. After the wax is poured, a jacket around each mold is filled with cold water to speed up the solidification process. Once the wax has solidified, the finished candles are pulled upwards out of the molds, allowing the wicks to again thread through the molds in preparation for the next load of candles. The wicks are snipped, and the process begins again. Excess wax is trimmed, collected and re-used. The continuous molding process is used to make cylindrical, tapered or fluted candles as long as they can be easily ejected from the mold.

Extrusion

• An alternate method uses extrusion, a process in which crushed paraffin wax is forced through a heated steel die under extreme pressure. At the same time, the wax is consolidated around the wick. Unlike molding machines, extrusion machines produce a continuous length of candle, which is then cut into specific sizes. Next, the tips of the candles are formed by rotation cutters, and the candles are sent to an automated packing machine.

Where To Learn More

Books

Constable, David. Candlemaking. Schwartz, Arthur & Co., Inc., 1993.

Millington, Deborah. Tradition Candle-making: Simple Methods of Manufacture. Intermediate Technology Development Group of North America, 1992.

Shaw, Ray. Candle Art. William Morrow, 1973.

Taylor, Richard. Beeswax Molding & Candle Making. Linden Books, 1985.

Webster, William and Claire McMullen. Contemporary Candlemaking. Doubleday, 1972.

Webster, William and Claire McMullen. The Complete Book of Candlemaking. Doubleday, 1973.

Periodicals

Rupp, Becky. "The Art of Candle Making," Blair & Ketchum's Country Journal. January, 1986, p. 57.

[Article by: Jim Acton]

(Candle Corporation, El Segundo, CA) A leading software company specializing in performance monitoring and systems availability tools for the mainframe environment that was acquired by IBM in 2004. It was founded in 1976 by Aubrey Chernick, who developed OMEGAMON, the first real time performance monitor for MVS. Candle provided a wide variety of products for managing systems and applications, and in 1996, expanded into middleware.

luminous intensity Of a different value in different countries, redefined with minor changes, first as a ‘new candle’, then as the candela. See candela.

In religious ritual, candles express a widespread symbolism whereby light is equated with goodness and spirituality—specifically, in Christianity, with Christ as the Light of the World. In all Catholic and many Anglican churches, there must be two alight during all services; they feature in the communal liturgy at Advent, Candlemas, and Easter; they are often used in processions and baptisms, and placed beside deathbeds and coffins. They also are a material expression of individual prayer; hence the customs of buying a small candle (or its modern equivalent, a night-light) and leaving it to burn before an altar or statue, and carrying candles during vigils of mourning or protest. Paradoxically, they also express celebration, so have a place on Christmas trees, birthday cakes, and dinner tables.

In medieval Catholicism, candles blessed by a priest (especially at Candlemas) were kept at home to protect the house against demons, witchcraft, and thunderstorms, and to be lit for the sick and dying; they were one of the commonest gifts offered in pilgrimage; people left money to ensure that lights would burn in front of specified altars, crosses, or statues in their parish church, especially during Mass (Duffy, 1992: 16-22, 134, 146-9; Finucane, 1977: 95-6).

Religious ritual is recalled in the idea that solemn cursing involves ‘bell, book, and candle’, and stories about ghost laying where the exorcist's candle must be kept alight. An ingenious variation of the latter concerns the ghost of ‘Old Coles’, who haunted a road between Bransford and Brocamin (Worcestershire): twelve parsons trapped him one dark night in a nearby pool, by the light of an inch of candle, bidding him stay there till the candle burnt out—and, to make sure he does, they threw the candle into the pool and filled it in (Hazlitt, 1905: 458).

Occasionally candles were used in magic; in 1843 a Mrs Bell in Norwich was said to have stuck a candle with pins in order to immobilize the arms and legs of a man she had quarrelled with (Hole, 1973: 91). Henderson reports two love spells, the first being from Durham, where a servant girl who kept a candle stump studded with pins explained, ‘It's to bring my sweetheart. Thou see'st, sometimes he's slow a-coming, and if I stick a candle-end full o' pins it always fetches him.’ His second account is from Buckinghamshire:

Damsels desirous of seeing their lovers would stick two pins through the candle they were burning, taking care that the pins passed through the wick. While doing this they recited the following verse:

It's not this candle alone I stick
But …'s heart I mean to prick
Whether he be asleep or awake
I'd have him come to me and speak.

By the time the candle burned down to the pins and went out, the lover would be certain to present himself.
(Henderson, 1879: 172-3; cf. Opie and Tatem, 1989: 55-6).

Candles lighted most American homes, public buildings, and streets until gas (1820s) and kerosene lamps (1850s) replaced them. Women in each family made many kinds of candles, from the common, made from tallow, to the expensive, made from beeswax. They also used a variety of other materials, such as bear grease, deer suet, bayberry, spermaceti, and well-rendered mutton fat. Every autumn, they filled leather or tin boxes with enough candles to last through the winter. To make candles, women first prepared wicks from rough hemp, milkweed, or cotton spun in large quantity. Then they under-took the lengthy task of dipping or molding several hundred candles by hand.

Homemakers were the exclusive candle makers until the 1700s, when itinerant candle makers could be hired. Later, professional chandlers prospered in the cities. Although factories were numerous after 1750, home dip-ping continued as late as 1880. The West Indies provided a large market for sperm candles, purchasing over 500,000 pounds of sperm and tallow candles from the colonies in 1768. The total production of candles from both factories and homes was valued at an estimated $8 million in 1810. The New England factories, the largest producers, imported supplies of fat from Russia. Large plants also existed in New Orleans, Louisiana; St. Louis, Missouri; and Hudson, New York. South Carolina and Georgia produced quantities of seeds and capsules from tallow trees used extensively for candle making in the South. Allied industries grew rapidly for making metal and pottery candle holders.

Bibliography

Cowan, Ruth Schwartz. A Social History of American Technology. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.

Wright, Louis B. Everyday Life in Colonial America. New York: Putnam, 1966.

—Lena G. FitzHugh/C. W.

To convert from candle/sq. cm to:

lamberts, multiply by 3.142.
lamberts, multiply by .487.

A close-up image of a candle showing the wick and the various regions of the flame. Note the truncated wick being consumed at the lower-right edge of the flame.

A candle is a light source that usually has an internal wick rising through the center of a column of solid fuel.

Prior to the mid 19th century, the candle was made from tallow (a byproduct of beef-fat rendering). The fuel now is nearly always some form of wax, with paraffin wax being the most common. Candles made from gel, soy, beeswax, and vegetable products are also available.

A candle manufacturer is usually known as a chandler. Various devices have been invented to secure candles into place, from simple tabletop candle holders, to elaborate chandeliers.

Prior to the candle being ignited, the wick is saturated with the fuel in its solid form. The heat of the match or other flame being used to light the candle first melts and then vaporizes a small amount of the fuel. Once vaporized, the fuel combines with oxygen in the atmosphere to form a flame. This flame then provides sufficient heat to keep the candle burning via a self-sustaining chain of events: the heat of the flame melts the top of the mass of solid fuel, the liquified fuel then moves upward through the wick via capillary action, and the liquified fuel is then vaporized to burn within the candle's flame.

The burning of the fuel takes place in several distinct regions (as evidenced by the various colors that can be seen within the candle's flame). Within the bluer, hotter regions, hydrogen is being separated from the fuel and burned to form water vapor. The brighter, yellower part of the flame is the remaining carbon being oxidized to form carbon dioxide.

As the mass of the solid fuel is melted and consumed, the candle grows shorter. Portions of the wick that are not evaporating the liquid fuel are, ideally, consumed in the flame, limiting the exposed length of the wick and keeping the temperature and rate of fuel consumption even. Some wicks require manual trimming with scissors or a wick trimmer for even burning.

History

A rectangular candle.

Main article: History of candle making

The candle was developed independently in many countries. The Egyptians and Cretans made the candle from beeswax, as early as 3000 BC. The early candle was made from various forms of natural fat, tallow, and wax. In the 18th century, spermaceti, an oil produced by the sperm whale, was used to produce a superior candle. Late in the 18th century, colza oil and rapeseed oil came into use as much cheaper substitutes. Paraffin was first distilled in 1830, and revolutionized candle-making, as it was an inexpensive material which produced a high-quality, odorless candle that burned reasonably cleanly. The industry was devastated soon after, however, by the distillation of kerosene (confusingly also called paraffin oil or just paraffin). This excellent fuel for lamps gave the candle its current status as a primarily decorative item. Recently resin based candles that are freestanding and transparent have been developed, with the claim that they burn longer than traditional paraffin candles.

Usage

Candle birthday cakes.

Before the domestication of electricity, the candle was a common source of lighting, before, and later in addition to, the oil lamp. Due to local availability and the cost of resources, for several centuries up to the 19th century the candle was more common in northern Europe, and olive oil lamps more common in southern Europe and around the Mediterranean Sea. Candle makers were known as chandlers.

Today, the candle is usually used for their aesthetic value, particularly to set a soft, warm, or romantic ambience, and for emergency lighting during electrical power failures.The Scented candle is common in aromatherapy.

Religion

The candle is used in the religious ceremonies of many different faiths.

Buddhism

A very large carved Thai candle, similar to those used in the Ubon Ratchathani Candle Festival

Candles are a traditional part of Buddhist ritual observances. Along with incense and flowers, candles (or some other type of light source, such as butter lamps) are placed before Buddhist shrines or images of the Buddha as a show of respect. They may also be accompanied by offerings of food and drink. The light of the candles is described as representing the light of the Buddha's teachings, echoing the metaphor of light used in various Buddhist scriptures.^[1] See Ubon Ratchathani Candle Festival for an example of a Buddhist festival that makes extensive use of candles.

Hinduism

Terracotta diyas ~ Ritual lamps or oil candle lamps

A diya, or clay lamp, is generally a must in any Hindu religious occasion and forms an integral part in many social rites. It is a strong symbol of enlightenment and prosperity.

In its traditional and simplest form, the diya is made from baked clay or terracotta and holds oil that is lit via a cotton wick.

Traditional diyas have now evolved into form wherein waxes are being used as replacements for oils. sample of a traditional earthen clay lamp

Christianity

In Christianity the candle is commonly used in worship both for decoration and ambiance, and as symbols that represent the light of God or, specifically, the light of Christ. The candle is often placed on the altar. A Votive candle may be lit as an accompaniment to prayer. The candle is lit by worshippers in front of icons in Orthodox and other churches. In some churches, a special candle known as the Paschal candle, specifically represents Christ and is lit only at Easter, funerals, and baptisms.

In some Christian denominations, the day of Candlemas marks the end of the season of Epiphany. On this day, the presiding priest blesses the candle to be used in worship for the following year.

The Candle was traditionally used to light up Christmas trees before the advent of electric lights. They are still commonly used to decorate Christmas trees in Denmark and other European countries. They are also used in Advent wreaths.

In Sweden (and other Scandinavian countries), St. Lucia Day is celebrated on December 13 with the crowning of a young girl with a candle ring.

See also: Dikirion and trikirion

Judaism

A yahrtzeit candle, lit on the hebrew anniversary of a loved one's death

In Judaism, the candle is traditionally lit on Friday evening at the start of the weekly Sabbath celebration and Saturday night during the Havdalah ritual, which ends the Sabbath. The Jewish holiday of Hanukkah, also known as the Festival of Lights, is celebrated by lighting a candle in a special candelabrum (Chanukkiyah) each night during the eight-day holiday to commemorate the dedication of the altar in the Temple in Jerusalem. The candle was also used in remembering a deceased loved one, especially on their Yahrzeit, the anniversary of their death according to the Hebrew calendar, when a 24-hour candle is lit. Similarly, on Yom HaShoah, a day of remembrance for all those who perished in the Holocaust, a candle is lit to honor the victims.

Kwanzaa

The Candle is also used in celebrations of Kwanzaa, which is an African American holiday which runs from December 26 to January 1. The kinara: has three red, one black, three green.

Humanism

For Humanists, skeptics, and nontheists (and particularly secular humanists), the candle has become a symbol of the light of reason or rationality. The Humanist festival of HumanLight often features a candle-lighting ceremony.

Wicca

In Wicca and related forms of Neopaganism, the candle is frequently used on the altar to represent the presence of the God and Goddess, and in the four corners of a ritual circle to represent the presence of the four classical elements: Fire, Earth, Air, and Water. When used in this manner, lighting and extinguishing the candle marks the opening and closing of the ritual. The candle is also frequently used by Wiccans and other Neopagans for magical and meditative purposes.

Timekeeping

An Advent candle burning on the fourth day of December.

With the fairly consistent and measurable burning of a candle, a common use was to tell the time. The candle designed for this purpose might have time measurements, usually in hours, marked along the wax. The Sung dynasty in China (960–1279) used candle-clocks. By the 18th century, candle-clocks were being made with weights set into the sides of the candle. As the candle melted, the weights fell off and made a noise as they fell into a bowl. A form of candle-clock was used in coal-mining until the 20th century.

In the days leading to Christmas some people burn a candle a set amount to represent each day, as marked on the candle. The type of candle used in this way is called the Advent candle, although this term is also used to refer to a candle that decorates an Advent wreath.

Fuel and candle holders

The candle can be made of paraffin (a byproduct of petroleum refining), stearin (now produced almost exclusively from palm waxes), beeswax (a byproduct of honey collection), gel (a mixture of resin and mineral oil), some plant waxes (generally palm, carnauba, bayberry, or soy), or tallow (rarely used since the introduction of affordable wax alternatives). The candle is produced in various colors, shapes, sizes and scents. The most basic production method generally entails the liquification of the solid fuel by the controlled application of heat. This liquid is then poured into a mold to produce a pillar type candle, a fireproof jar to produce a candle container, or a wick is repeatedly immersed in the liquid to create a dipped taper. Often, fragrance oils are added to the liquid wax prior to pouring. Natural scents, in the form of essential oils, can be used, but these are usually only found in a premium candle. The candle may also be colored by the addition of some sort of coloring agent. In practical terms this is almost always an aniline-based dye, although pigments can be used in some circumstances.

A candle typically produces about 13 lumens of visible light and 40 watts of heat, although this can vary depending primarily on the characteristics of the candle wick. For comparison, note that a 40 watt incandescent light bulb produces approximately 500 lumens for the same amount of power. The modern SI unit of luminous intensity, the candela, was based on an older unit called the candlepower, which represented the luminous intensity emitted by a candle made to particular specifications (a "standard candle"). The modern unit is defined in a more precise and repeatable way, but was chosen such that a candle's luminous intensity is still about one candela.

Floating candle

It is commonly believed that the candle made of beeswax and/or soy burn more cleanly than petroleum based paraffin waxes. However highly-refined paraffin wax can burn as or more cleanly (with regards to particulates created during combustion) than natural waxes. The type of wick and inclusion of any scents and/or dyes have a much greater impact on the release of compounds, particulates, and smoke, regardless of the base material. The cleanest burning candle will therefore be unscented, undyed, and a well constructed candle burning in a draft free area. Furthermore, a candle will function well when formulated waxes are blended together (soy, paraffin and other waxes) and fragrance oils along with wick selections are balanced properly.

This candle holder uses a spike to keep the candle up.

A collection of lit wicks on ornate candlesticks

A smoke film can be a concern to those who frequently burn a candle indoors and is also referred to as ghosting, carbon tracking, carbon tracing. Smoke can be produced when a candle does not burn the wax fuel completely. A scented candle can be a source of candle smoke deposits. Trimming candle wicks to about 6 millimetres (¼ in) or shorter is recommended to keep smoking at a minimum. A flickering flame will produce more smoke, therefore a candle should be burned in an area free from drafts. (See [1] for more details.)

Additional debate on the use of wax in a candle exist on what is "natural". Proponents of the soy wax candle will note the material is biodegradable and "all natural". However, most soy beans that result in the ultimate manufacture of soy wax in the candle are genetically modified. Paraffin wax, as used in candle making, is also biodegradable. It also often meets the United States' Food and Drug Administration criteria for use in foods and in contact with food.

Decorative candle holders, especially those shaped as a pedestal, are called candlesticks; if multiple candle tapers are held, the term candelabrum is also used. The root form of chandelier is from the word for candle, but now usually refers to an electric fixture. The word candelier is sometimes now used to describe a hanging fixture designed to hold multiple tapers.

Many candle holders use a friction-tight socket to keep the candle upright. In this case, a candle that is slightly too wide will not fit in the holder, and a candle that is slightly too narrow will wobble. Any candle that is too large can be trimmed to fit with a knife; a candle that is too small can be fitted with aluminum foil. Traditionally, the candle and candle holders were made in the same place, so they were appropriately sized, but international trade has combined the modern candle with existing holders, which makes the ill-fitting candle more common.

Electric candle warmers are now being sold so that candle wax can be melted to release the fragrance without requiring an open flame.

Hazards

The candle can be a major cause of dangerous fires in households. (An electric candle warmer can be used to release fragrance without the risk of an open flame.)

The liquid wax is hot and can cause skin burns, but the amount and temperature are generally rather limited and the burns are seldom serious. The best way to avoid getting burned from splashed wax is to use a snuffer instead of blowing on the flame. A snuffer is usually a small metal cup on the end of a long handle. When placed over the flame the oxygen supply is cut off. They were used daily when the candle was the main source of lighting a home, before electric lights were available. Snuffers are available at most candle supply sources.

Glass candleholders are sometimes cracked by thermal shock from the candle flame, particularly when the candle burns down to the end.

A former worry regarding the safety of candles was that a lead core was used in the wicks to keep them upright in container candles. Without a stiff core, the wicks of a container candle could sag and drown in the deep wax pool. Concerns rose that the lead in these wicks would vaporize during the burning process, releasing lead vapours — a known health and developmental hazard. Lead core wicks have not been common since the 1970s. Imported candles may still be found to have some lead core wicks. Today, most metal-cored wicks use zinc or a zinc alloy, which has become the industry standard. Wicks made from specially treated paper and cotton are also available.

The hottest part of the flame is just above the very dull blue part to one side of the flame, at the base. At this point, the flame is at 1,400°C.^{[citation needed]}

See also

• History of candle making
• Fire
• The Chemical History of a Candle
• Candle warmer
• Candelabra
• Candle clock
• Candlepower
• Candle snuffer
• Candlestick
• Candle wick
• Rushlight
• Tealight
• Pillar candle
• Candle Night

External links

• National Candle Association of the U.S.
• Step by Step Candle Making Tutorial
• The Chemical History of a Candle by Michael Faraday

References

1. ^ Lay Buddhist Practice by Bhikkhu Khantipalo

Lighting and Lamps
Incandescent:	Conventional - Halogen - Parabolic aluminized reflector (PAR)
Fluorescent:	Compact fluorescent (CFL) - Linear fluorescent - Induction lamp
Gas discharge:	High-intensity discharge (HID) - Mercury-vapor - Metal-halide - Neon - Sodium vapor
Electric arc:	Arc lamp - HMI - Xenon arc - Yablochkov candle
Combustion:	Acetylene/Carbide - Candle - Gas lighting - Kerosene lamp - Limelight - Oil lamp - Safety lamp - Petromax - Rushlight
Other types:	Sulfur lamp - Light-emitting diode (LED) - LED lamp (SSL) - Plasma - Electroluminescent wire - Chemiluminescence - Deuterium arc lamp - Radioluminescence
Items used to manipulate resultant light:	Mirrors - Prism - Optical fiber - Lens

nds-nl:Keerse

This entry is from Wikipedia, the leading user-contributed encyclopedia. It may not have been reviewed by professional editors (see full disclaimer)

Dansk (Danish)
n. - lys
v. tr. - gennemlyse (æg)

idioms:

• cannot hold a candle to    kan ikke måle sig med

Nederlands (Dutch)
kaars, eieren schouwen

Français (French)
n. - bougie, chandelle
v. tr. - allumer une bougie

idioms:

• cannot hold a candle to    ne pas arriver à la cheville de

Deutsch (German)
n. - Kerze
v. - gegen das Licht halten, durchleuchten

idioms:

• cannot hold a candle to    kann jmndm. nicht das Wasser reichen

Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - κερί

idioms:

• cannot hold a candle to    δεν πιάνω χαρτωσιά μπροστά σε

Italiano (Italian)
candela

idioms:

• cannot hold a candle to    non é degno di pulire le scarpe a, non regge il confronto con
• not worth the candle    non vale la pena

Português (Portuguese)
n. - vela (f)

idioms:

• cannot hold a candle to    não chega aos pés de
• not worth the candle    não justifica o esforço

Русский (Russian)
свеча

idioms:

• cannot hold a candle to    не годиться в подметки кому-либо
• not worth the candle    не стоить свеч

Español (Spanish)
n. - vela, candela, cirio
v. tr. - examinar al trasluz

idioms:

• cannot hold a candle to    no le llega ni a la suela del zapato

Svenska (Swedish)
n. - ljus

中文（简体） (Chinese (Simplified))
蜡烛, 烛光, 烛形物, 对着光检查

idioms:

• cannot hold a candle to    与...不能相比, 比不上...

中文（繁體） (Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 蠟燭, 燭光, 燭形物
v. tr. - 對著光檢查

idioms:

• cannot hold a candle to    與...不能相比, 比不上...

한국어 (Korean)
n. - 양초, 촉광
v. tr. - 불빛에 비춰 조사하다

日本語 (Japanese)
n. - カンデラ, ろうそく

العربيه (Arabic)
‏(الاسم) شمعه‏

עברית (Hebrew)
n. - ‮נר‬
v. tr. - ‮בדק טריות ביצה באור‬

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