carbon cycle

1. Physics. See carbon-nitrogen cycle.
2. Ecology. The combined processes, including photosynthesis, decomposition, and respiration, by which carbon as a component of various compounds cycles between its major reservoirs—the atmosphere, oceans, and living organisms.

1. One of the major cycles of chemical elements in the environment. Carbon (as carbon dioxide) is taken up from the atmosphere and incorporated into the tissues of plants in photosynthesis. It may then pass into the bodies of animals as the plants are eaten. During the respiration of plants, animals, and organisms that bring about decomposition, carbon dioxide is returned to the atmosphere. The combustion of fossil fuels (e.g. coal and peat) also releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. See illustration. 2. (in physics) A series of nuclear reactions in which four hydrogen nuclei combine to form a helium nucleus with the liberation of energy, two positrons, and two neutrinos. The process is believed to be the source of energy in many stars and to take place in six stages. In this series carbon–12 acts as if it were a catalyst, being reformed at the end of the series:

carbon cycle

Concept

If a person were asked to name the element most important to sustaining life, chances are he or she would say oxygen. It is true that many living things depend on oxygen to survive, but, in fact, carbon is even more fundamental to the sustenance of life. Indeed, in a very real sense, carbon is life, since every living thing contains carbon and the term organic refers to certain varieties present in all life-forms. Yet carbon, in the form of such oxides as carbon dioxide as well as carbonates like calcium carbonate, is a vital part of the inorganic realm as well. Hence, the carbon cycle, by which the element is circulated through the biosphere, geosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere, is among the most complex of biogeochemical cycles.

How It Works

Geochemistry

Chemistry is concerned with the composition, structure, properties, and changes of substances, including elements, compounds, and mixtures. Central to the discipline is the atomic model, or the idea that all matter is composed of atoms, each of which represents one and only one chemical element. An element thus is defined as a substance made up of only one kind of atom, which cannot be broken chemically into other substances. A chemical reaction involves either the bonding of one atom with another or the breaking of chemical bonds between atoms.

Geochemistry brings together geology and chemistry, though as the subdiscipline has matured in the period since the 1940s, its scope has widened to take in aspects of other disciplines and subdisciplines. With its focus on such issues as the recycling of elements between the various sectors of the earth system, especially between living and nonliving things, geochemistry naturally encompasses biology, botany, and a host of earth science subdisciplines, such as hydrology.

Biogeochemical Cycles

Among the most significant areas of study within the realm of geochemistry are biogeochemical cycles. These are the changes that a particular element undergoes as it passes back and forth through the various earth systems—particularly between living and nonliving matter. As we shall see, this transition between the worlds of the living and the nonliving is particularly interesting where carbon is concerned.

Along with carbon, five other elements—hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur—are involved in biogeochemical cycles. With the exception of phosphorus, which plays little part in the atmosphere, these elements move through all four earth systems, including the atmosphere, the biosphere (the sum of all living things as well as formerly living things that have not yet decomposed), the hydrosphere (Earth's water, except for water vapor in the atmosphere), and the geosphere, or the upper part of Earth's continental crust.

Earth systems and biogeochemical cycles are discussed in greater depth within essays devoted to those topics (see Earth Systems and Biogeochemical Cycles). Likewise, the nitrogen cycle is treated separately (see Nitrogen Cycle). The role of hydrogen and oxygen, which chemically bond to form water, is discussed in the context of the hydrosphere (see Hydrologic Cycle).

Elements and Compounds

We have referred to elements and compounds, which are essential to the study of chemistry; now let us examine them briefly before going on to the subject of a specific and very important element, carbon. An element is defined not by outward characteristics, though elements do have definable features by which they are known; rather, the true meaning of the term element is discernible only at the atomic level.

Every atom has a nucleus, which contains protons, or subatomic particles of positive electric charge. The identity of an element is defined by the number of protons in the nucleus: for instance, if an atom has only a single proton, by definition it must be hydrogen. An atom with six protons in the nucleus, on the other hand, is always an atom of carbon. Thus, the elements are listed on the periodic table of elements by atomic number, or the number of protons in the atomic nucleus.

Electrons and Chemical Reactions

While protons are essential to the definition of an element, they play no role in the bonding between atoms, which usually produces chemical compounds. (The reason for this is qualified by the modifier usually, in that sometimes two atoms of the same element may bond as well.) Chemical bonding involves only the electrons, which are negatively charged subatomic particles that spin around the nucleus. In fact, only certain of these fast-moving particles take part in bonding. These are the valence electrons, which occupy the highest energy levels in the atom.

One might say that valence electrons are at the "outside edge" of the atom, though the model of atomic structure, considered only in the briefest form here, is far more complex than that phrase implies. In any case, elements have characteristic valence electron patterns that affect their reactivity, or their ability to bond. Carbon is structured in such a way that it can form multiple bonds, and this feature plays a significant part in its importance as an element.

When an element reacts with another, they join together, generally in a molecule (we will examine some exceptions), to form a compound. Though the atoms themselves remain intact, and an element can be released from a compound, a compound quite often has properties quite unlike those of the original elements. Carbon and oxygen are essential to sustaining life, but when a single atom of one bonds with a single atom of the other, they form a toxic gas, carbon monoxide. And whereas carbon in its elemental form is a black powder and hydrogen and oxygen are colorless, odorless gases, when bonded in the proper proportions and structure, the three create sugar.

Carbon

The name carbon comes from the Latin word for charcoal, carbo. In fact, charcoal—wood or other plant material that has been heated without enough air present to make it burn—is just one of many well-known substances that contain carbon. Others include coal, petroleum, and other fossil fuels, all of which contain hydrocarbons, or chemical compounds built around strings of carbon and hydrogen atoms. Graphite is pure carbon, and coke, a refined version of coal, is very nearly pure. Not everything made of carbon is black, however: diamonds, too, are pure carbon in another form.

Though carbon makes up only a small portion of the known elemental mass in Earth's crust, waters, and atmosphere—just 0.08%, or 1/1,250 of the whole—it is the fourteenth most abundant element on the planet. In the human body, carbon is second only to oxygen in abundance and accounts for 18% of the body's mass. Present in the inorganic rocks of the ground and in the living creatures above it, carbon is everywhere in the earth system.

Carbon Bonding

There are two elements noted for their ability to form long strings of atoms and seemingly endless varieties of molecules: one is carbon, and the other is silicon, directly below it on the periodic table. Just as carbon forms a vast array of organic compounds, silicon, found in a huge variety of minerals, is at the center of a large number of inorganic compounds. Yet carbon is capable of forming an even greater number of bonds than silicon. (For more about silicon and the silicates, see the entries Minerals and Economic Geology.)

Carbon is distinguished further by its high value of electronegativity, the relative ability of an atom to attract valence electrons. In addition, with four valence electrons, carbon is ideally suited to finding other elements (or other carbon atoms) with which to form chemical bonds. Normally, an element does not necessarily have the ability to bond with as many other elements as it has valence electrons, but carbon—with its four valence electrons—happens to be tetravalent, or capable of bonding to four other atoms at once. Additionally, carbon can form not just a single bond but also a double bond or even a triple bond with other elements.

Allotropes of Carbon

Carbon has several allotropes—different versions of the same element distinguished by their molecular structure. The first of them is graphite, a soft material that most of us regularly encounter in the form of pencil "lead." Graphite is essentially a series of one-atom-thick sheets of carbon bonded together in a hexagonal pattern, but with only very weak attractions between adjacent sheets.

Then there is that most alluring of all carbon allotropes, diamond. Neither diamonds nor graphite, strictly speaking, are formed of molecules. Their arrangement is definite, as with a molecule, but their size is not: they simply form repeating patterns that seem to stretch on forever. Whereas graphite is in the form of sheets, a diamond is basically a huge "molecule" composed of carbon atoms strung together by what are known as covalent chemical bonds.

Graphite and diamond are both crystalline—solids in which the constituent parts have a simple and definite geometric arrangement that is repeated in all directions. (All minerals are crystalline in structure. See Minerals.) A third carbon allotrope, buckminsterfullerene, discovered in 1985 and named after the American engineer and philosopher R. Buckminster Fuller (1895-1983), is also crystalline in form.

Carbon takes yet another form, distinguished from the other three allotropes in that it is amorphous in structure—lacking a definite shape—as opposed to crystalline. Though it retains some of the microscopic structures of the plant cells in the wood from which it is made, charcoal is mostly amorphous carbon. Coal and coke are particularly significant varieties of amorphous carbon. Formed by the decay of fossils, coal was the first important fossil fuel (discussed later in this essay) used to provide heat and power to human societies.

Real-Life Applications

Organic Chemistry

Organic chemistry is the study of carbon, its compounds (with the exception of the carbonates and oxides mentioned earlier), and their properties. At one time chemists thought that organic was synonymous with living, and even as recently as the early nineteenth century, they believed that organic substances contained a supernatural "life force." Then, in 1828, the German chemist Friedrich Wöhler (1800-1882) made an amazing discovery.

By heating a sample of ammonium cyanate, a material from a nonliving source, Wöhler converted it to urea, a waste product in the urine of mammals. As he later observed, "without benefit of a kidney, a bladder, or a dog," he had turned an inorganic substance into an organic one. It was almost as though he had created life. Actually, what he had discovered was the distinction between organic and inorganic material, which results from the way in which the carbon chains are arranged.

Organic chemistry encompasses the study of many things that people commonly think of as "organic"—living creatures, formerly living creatures, and the parts and products of their bodies—but it also is concerned with substances that seem quite far removed from the living world. Among these substances are rubber, vitamins, cloth, and paper, but even in these cases, it is easy to see the relationship to a formerly living organism: a rubber plant, or a tree that was cut down to make wood pulp. But it might come as a surprise to learn that plastics, which at first glance would seem completely divorced from the living world, also have an organic basis. All manner of artificial substances, such as nylon and polyester, are made from hydrocarbons.

Fossil Fuels

During the Mesozoic era, which began about 248.2 million years ago, dinosaurs ruled the earth; then, about 65 million years ago, a violent event brought an end to their world. The cause of this mass extinction is unknown, though it is likely that a meteorite hit the planet, sending so much dust into the atmosphere that it dramatically changed local climates, bringing about the destruction of the dinosaurs—along with a huge array of other animal and plant forms. (See Paleontology for more on this subject.)

The bodies of the dinosaurs, along with those of other organisms, were deposited in the solid earth and covered by sediment. They might well have simply rotted, and indeed many of them probably did. But many of these organisms were deposited in an anaerobic, or non-oxygen-containing, environment. Rather than simply rotting, this organic material underwent transformation into hydrocarbons and became the basis for the fossil fuels, the most important of which—from the standpoint of modern society—is petroleum. (See Economic Geology for more on this subject.)

Carbonates

Carbonates are important forms of inorganic carbon in the geosphere. In chemical terms, a carbonate is made from a single carbon atom bonded to three oxygen atoms, but in mineralogical terms, carbonates are a class of mineral that may contain carbon, nitrogen, or boron in a characteristic molecular formation. Typically, a carbonate is transparent and light in color with a relatively high density. Among carbonate minerals, the most significant compound is calcium carbonate (CaCO₃). One of the most common compounds in the entire geosphere, constituting 7% of the known crustal mass, it is found in such rocks as limestone, marble, and chalk. (Just as pencil "lead" is not really lead, the "chalk" used for writing on blackboards is actually gypsum, a form of calcium sulfate.) Additionally, calcium carbonate can combine with magnesium to form dolomite, and in caves it is the material that makes up stalactites and stalagmites. Yet calcium carbonate also is found in coral, seashells, eggshells, and pearls. This is a good example of how a substance can cross the chemical boundary between the worlds of the living and nonliving.

In the oceans, calcium reacts with dissolved carbon dioxide, forming calcium carbonate and sinking to the bottom. Millions of years ago, when oceans covered much of the planet, sea creatures absorbed calcium and carbon dioxide from the water, which reacted to form calcium carbonate that went into their shells and skeletons. After they died, their bodies became sedimented in the ocean floor, forming vast deposits of limestone.

Carbon Dioxide and Carbon Monoxide

Historically, carbon dioxide was the first gas to be distinguished from ordinary air, when in 1630 the Flemish chemist and physicist Jan Baptista van Helmont (1577?-1644) discovered that air was not a single element, as had been thought up to that time. The name perhaps most closely associated with carbon dioxide, however, is that of the English chemist Joseph Priestley (1733-1804), who created carbonated water, used today in making soft drinks. Not only does the gas add bubbles to drinks, it also acts as a preservative.

By Priestley's era, chemists had begun to glimpse a relationship between plant life and carbon dioxide. Up until that time, it had been believed that plants purify the air by day and poison it at night. Today we know that carbon dioxide is an essential component in the natural balance between plant and animal life. Animals, including humans, breathe in air, and, as a result of a chemical reaction in their bodies, the oxygen molecules (O₂) bond with carbon to produce carbon dioxide. Plants "breathe" in this carbon dioxide (which is as important to their survival as air is to animals), and a reverse reaction leads to the release of oxygen from the plants back into the atmosphere.

Carbon Monoxide

Priestley discovered another carbon-oxygen compound quite different from carbon dioxide: carbon monoxide. The latter is used today by industry for several purposes, such as the production of certain fuels, proving that this toxic gas can be quite beneficial when used in a controlled environment. Nonetheless, carbon monoxide produced in an uncontrolled environment—generated by the burning of petroleum in automobiles as well as by the combustion of wood, coal, and other carbon-containing fuels—is extremely hazardous to human health.

When humans ingest carbon monoxide, it bonds with iron in hemoglobin, the substance in red blood cells that transports oxygen throughout the body. In effect, carbon monoxide fools the body into thinking that it is receiving oxygenated hemoglobin, or oxyhemoglobin. Upon reaching the cells, carbon monoxide has much less tendency than oxygen to break down, and therefore it continues to circulate throughout the body. Low concentrations can cause nausea, vomiting, and other effects, while prolonged exposure to high concentrations can result in death.

The Greenhouse Effect

Although we have referred to carbon monoxide as toxic, it should be noted that carbon dioxide also would be toxic to a human or other animal—for instance, if one were trapped in a sealed compartment and forced to breathe in the carbon dioxide released from one's lungs. On a global scale, both carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide in the atmosphere, produced in excessive amounts by the burning of fossil fuels, pose a potentially serious threat.

Both gases are believed to contribute to the greenhouse effect, which, as discussed in Energy and Earth, is a mechanism by which the planet efficiently uses the heat it receives from the Sun. Human consumption of fossil fuels and use of other products, including chlorofluorocarbons in aerosol cans, however, has produced a much greater quantity of greenhouse gases than the atmosphere needs to maintain normal heat levels. As a result, some scientists believe, buildup of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is causing global warming.

Cellular Respiration

The burning of fossil fuels is one of three ways that carbon enters the atmosphere, the others being volcanic eruption and cellular respiration. When cellular respiration takes place in the presence of oxygen, there is an intake of organic substances, which are broken down into carbon dioxide and water, with the release of considerable energy.

When plants take in carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, they combine it with water and manufacture organic compounds, using energy they have trapped from sunlight by means of photosynthesis—the conversion of light to chemical energy through biological means. As a byproduct of photosynthesis, plants release oxygen into the atmosphere, as we have noted earlier.

In the process of photosynthesis, plants produce carbohydrates, which are various compounds of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen that are essential to life. (The other two fundamental components of a diet are fats and proteins, both of which are carbon-based as well.) Animals eat the plants or eat other animals that eat the plants and thus incorporate the fats, proteins, and sugars (a form of carbohydrate) from the plants into their bodies. In cellular respiration, these nutrients are broken down to create carbon dioxide.

Decomposition

Cellular respiration also releases carbon into the atmosphere through the action of decomposers, organisms that obtain their energy from the chemical breakdown of dead organisms as well as from animal and plant waste products. Bacteria and fungi, the principal forms of decomposer, extract energy contained in the chemical bonds of the organic matter they are decomposing and, in the process, release carbon dioxide.

Certain ecosystems, or communities of interdependent organisms, are better than others at producing carbon dioxide through decomposition. As one would expect, environments where heat and moisture are greatest—for example, a tropical rainforest—yield the fastest rates of decomposition. On the other hand, decomposition proceeds much more slowly in dry, cold climates such as that of a subarctic tundra.

Where to Learn More

Blashfield, Jean F. Carbon. Austin, TX: Raintree Steck-Vaughn, 1999.

Carbon Cycle: Exploring the Environment (Web site). <http://www.cotf.edu/ete/modules/carbon/efcarbon.html>.

Carbon Cycle Greenhouse Gases Group (CCGG) (Web site). <http://www.cmdl.noaa.gov/ccgg/>.

Chemical Carousel: A Trip Around the Carbon Cycle (Web site). <http://library.thinkquest.org/11226/>.

Frostburg State University Chemistry Helper (Web site). <http://www.chemhelper.com/>.

"Global Carbon Cycle." The Woods Hole Research Center (Web site). <http://www.whrc.org/science/carbon/carbon.htm>.

Knapp, Brian J. Carbon Chemistry. Illus. David Woodroffe. Danbury, CT: Grolier Educational, 1998.

Loudon, G. Marc. Organic Chemistry. Menlo Park, CA: Benjamin/Cummings, 1988.

Sparrow, Giles. Carbon. New York: Benchmark Books, 1999.

Stille, Darlene. The Respiratory System. New York: Children's Press, 1997.

Carbon is supplied to the biosphere as carbon dioxide during volcanic eruptions. Most of this is dissolved in the sea or incorporated into calcareous sediments which then harden to form limestones and dolomites. As these rocks are folded and raised above sea level, they are subjected to solution by weak carbonic acid and form sediments once more. This is the largest and slowest of the carbon cycles. The shortest cycle involves respiration by plants and animals whereby carbon dioxide is expired, and photosynthesis by plants which change carbon dioxide and water into organic compounds.

It has been suggested that a third carbon cycle exists in the burning of fossil fuels, causing the emission of carbon dioxide, which can be incorporated by living organisms once again. These may then be a source of fuel. It is this third cycle that seems to be out of balance; carbon dioxide is being emitted far more rapidly than can be absorbed by the oceans, or during photosynthesis. This increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide may lead to an increase in the warming of the atmosphere. see greenhouse effect.

For more information on carbon cycle, visit Britannica.com.

To survive, every organism must have access to carbon atoms. Carbon makes up about 49 percent of the dry weight of organisms. The carbon cycle includes movement of carbon from the gaseous phase (carbon dioxide [CO₂] in the atmosphere) to solid phase (carbon-containing compounds in living organisms) and then back to the atmosphere via decomposers. The atmosphere is the largest reservoir of carbon, containing 32 percent CO₂. Biological processes on land shuttle carbon between atmospheric and terrestrial compartments, with photosynthesis removing CO₂ from the atmosphere and cell respiration returning CO₂ to the atmosphere.

In ecology, the movement of atoms of carbon through the biosphere. Molecules of carbon dioxide are taken in by plants, to be incorporated into their tissues, which may then be eaten by and incorporated into animals. Animals return the carbon to the air in the form of carbon dioxide, and the cycle starts again. (See photosynthesis and respiration.)

For the thermonuclear reaction involving carbon that helps power stars, see CNO cycle.

Diagram of the carbon cycle. The black numbers indicate how much carbon is stored in various reservoirs, in billions of tons ("GtC" stands for GigaTons of Carbon and figures are circa 2004). The purple numbers indicate how much carbon moves between reservoirs each year. The sediments, as defined in this diagram, do not include the ~70 million GtC of carbonate rock and kerogen.

The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged among the biosphere, pedosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of the Earth.

The carbon cycle is usually thought of as four major reservoirs of carbon interconnected by pathways of exchange. These reservoirs are:

• The plants
• The terrestrial biosphere, which is usually defined to include fresh water systems and non-living organic material, such as soil carbon.
• The oceans, including dissolved inorganic carbon and living and non-living marine biota,
• The sediments including fossil fuels.

The annual movements of carbon, the carbon exchanges between reservoirs, occur because of various chemical, physical, geological, and biological processes. The ocean contains the largest active pool of carbon near the surface of the Earth, but the deep ocean part of this pool does not rapidly exchange with the atmosphere.

The global carbon budget is the balance of the exchanges (incomes and losses) of carbon between the carbon reservoirs or between one specific loop (e.g., atmosphere ↔ biosphere) of the carbon cycle. An examination of the carbon budget of a pool or reservoir can provide information about whether the pool or reservoir is functioning as a source or sink for carbon dioxide.

Contents 1 In the Atmosphere 2 In the biosphere 3 In the ocean 4 See also 5 References 5.1 Further reading 6 External links

In the Atmosphere

Carbon exists in the Earth's atmosphere primarily as the gas carbon dioxide (CO₂). Although it is a small percentage of the atmosphere (approximately 0.04% on a molar basis, and increasing), it plays an important role in supporting life. Other gases containing carbon in the atmosphere are methane and chlorofluorocarbons (the latter is entirely anthropogenic). The overall atmospheric concentration of these greenhouse gases has been increasing in recent decades. Trees convert carbon dioxide into carbohydrates during photosynthesis, releasing oxygen in the process. This process is most prolific in relatively new forests where tree growth is still rapid. The effect is strongest in deciduous forests during spring leafing out. This is visible as an annual signal in the Keeling curve of measured CO₂ concentration. Northern hemisphere spring predominates, as there is far more land in temperate latitudes in that hemisphere than in the southern.

• Forests store 86% of the planet's above-ground carbon and 73% of the planet's soil carbon.^[1]
• At the surface of the oceans towards the poles, seawater becomes cooler and more carbonic acid is formed as CO₂ becomes more soluble. This is coupled to the ocean's thermohaline circulation which transports dense surface water into the ocean's interior (see the entry on the solubility pump).
• In upper ocean areas of high biological productivity, organisms convert reduced carbon to tissues, or carbonates to hard body parts such as shells and tests. These are, respectively, oxidized (soft-tissue pump) and redissolved (carbonate pump) at lower average levels of the ocean than those at which they formed, resulting in a downward flow of carbon (see entry on the biological pump).
• The weathering of silicate rock (see Carbonate-Silicate Cycle). Carbonic acid reacts with weathered rock to produce bicarbonate ions. The bicarbonate ions produced are carried to the ocean, where they are used to make marine carbonates. Unlike dissolved CO₂ in equilibrium or tissues which decay, weathering does not move the carbon into a reservoir from which it can readily return to the atmosphere.
• In 1850, atmospheric carbon dioxide was about 280 parts per million (ppm), and today it is about 385ppm^[2].
• Future CO₂ emission can be calculated by the kaya identity

Carbon is released into the atmosphere in several ways:

• Through the respiration performed by plants and animals. This is an exothermic reaction and it involves the breaking down of glucose (or other organic molecules) into carbon dioxide and water.
• Through the decay of animal and plant matter. Fungi and bacteria break down the carbon compounds in dead animals and plants and convert the carbon to carbon dioxide if oxygen is present, or methane if not.
• Through combustion of organic material which oxidizes the carbon it contains, producing carbon dioxide (and other things, like water vapor). Burning fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum products, and natural gas releases carbon that has been stored in the geosphere for millions of years. Burning agrofuels also releases carbon dioxide.
• Production of cement. Carbon dioxide is released when limestone (calcium carbonate) is heated to produce lime (calcium oxide), a component of cement.
• At the surface of the oceans where the water becomes warmer, dissolved carbon dioxide is released back into the atmosphere.
• Volcanic eruptions and metamorphism release gases into the atmosphere. Volcanic gases are primarily water vapor, carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide. The carbon dioxide released is roughly equal to the amount removed by silicate weathering; so the two processes, which are the chemical reverse of each other, sum to roughly zero, and do not affect the level of atmospheric carbon dioxide on time scales of less than about 100,000 years.

In the biosphere

Around 42,000 gigatonnes of carbon are present in the biosphere. Carbon is an essential part of life on Earth. It plays an important role in the structure, biochemistry, and nutrition of all living cells.

• Autotrophs are organisms that produce their own organic compounds using carbon dioxide from the air or water in which they live. To do this they require an external source of energy. Almost all autotrophs use solar radiation to provide this, and their production process is called photosynthesis. A small number of autotrophs exploit chemical energy sources in a process called chemosynthesis. The most important autotrophs for the carbon cycle are trees in forests on land and phytoplankton in the Earth's oceans. Photosynthesis follows the reaction 6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂
• Carbon is transferred within the biosphere as heterotrophs feed on other organisms or their parts (e.g., fruits). This includes the uptake of dead organic material (detritus) by fungi and bacteria for fermentation or decay.
• Most carbon leaves the biosphere through respiration. When oxygen is present, aerobic respiration occurs, which releases carbon dioxide into the surrounding air or water, following the reaction C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O. Otherwise, anaerobic respiration occurs and releases methane into the surrounding environment, which eventually makes its way into the atmosphere or hydrosphere (e.g., as marsh gas or flatulence).
• Burning of biomass (e.g. forest fires, wood used for heating, anything else organic) can also transfer substantial amounts of carbon to the atmosphere
• Carbon may also be circulated within the biosphere when dead organic matter (such as peat) becomes incorporated in the geosphere. Animal shells of calcium carbonate, in particular, may eventually become limestone through the process of sedimentation.
• Much remains to be learned about the cycling of carbon in the deep ocean. For example, a recent discovery is that larvacean mucus houses (commonly known as "sinkers") are created in such large numbers that they can deliver as much carbon to the deep ocean as has been previously detected by sediment traps.^[3] Because of their size and composition, these houses are rarely collected in such traps, so most biogeochemical analyses have erroneously ignored them.

Carbon storage in the biosphere is influenced by a number of processes on different time-scales: while net primary productivity follows a diurnal and seasonal cycle, carbon can be stored up to several hundreds of years in trees and up to thousands of years in soils. Changes in those long term carbon pools (e.g. through de- or afforestation or through temperature-related changes in soil respiration) may thus affect global climate change.

In the ocean

"Present day" (1990s) sea surface dissolved inorganic carbon concentration (from the GLODAP climatology)

The oceans contain around 36,000 gigatonnes of carbon, mostly in the form of bicarbonate ion (over 90%, with most of the remainder being carbonate). Extreme storms such as hurricanes and typhoons bury a lot of carbon, because they wash away so much sediment. For instance, a team reported in the July 2008 issue of the journal Geology that a single typhoon in Taiwan buries as much carbon in the ocean -- in the form of sediment -- as all the other rains in that country all year long combined.^[4] Inorganic carbon, that is carbon compounds with no carbon-carbon or carbon-hydrogen bonds, is important in its reactions within water. This carbon exchange becomes important in controlling pH in the ocean and can also vary as a source or sink for carbon. Carbon is readily exchanged between the atmosphere and ocean. In regions of oceanic upwelling, carbon is released to the atmosphere. Conversely, regions of downwelling transfer carbon (CO₂) from the atmosphere to the ocean. When CO₂ enters the ocean, it participates in a series of reactions which are locally in equilibrium:

Solution:

CO₂(atmospheric) ⇌ CO₂(dissolved)

Conversion to carbonic acid:

CO₂(dissolved) + H₂O ⇌ H₂CO₃

First ionization:

H₂CO₃ ⇌ H⁺ + HCO₃⁻ (bicarbonate ion)

Second ionization:

HCO₃⁻ ⇌ H⁺ + CO₃⁻⁻ (carbonate ion)

This set of reactions, each of which has its own equilibrium coefficient determines the form that inorganic carbon takes in the oceans^[5]. The coefficients, which have been determined empirically for ocean water, are themselves functions of temperature, pressure, and the presence of other ions (especially borate). In the ocean the equilibria strongly favor bicarbonate. Since this ion is three steps removed from atmospheric CO₂, the level of inorganic carbon storage in the ocean does not have a proportion of unity to the atmospheric partial pressure of CO₂. The factor for the ocean is about ten: that is, for a 10% increase in atmospheric CO₂, oceanic storage (in equilibrium) increases by about 1%, with the exact factor dependent on local conditions. This buffer factor is often called the "Revelle Factor", after Roger Revelle.

In the oceans, bicarbonate can combine with calcium to form limestone (calcium carbonate, CaCO₃, with silica), which precipitates to the ocean floor. Limestone is the largest reservoir of carbon in the carbon cycle. The calcium comes from the weathering of calcium-silicate rocks, which causes the silicon in the rocks to combine with oxygen to form sand or quartz (silicon dioxide), leaving calcium ions available to form limestone^[6].

See also

• C4MIP
• Carbon cycle re-balancing
• Carbon footprint
• Global Carbon Project
• Carbon diet
• Low carbon diet
• Ocean acidification
• Primary production
• Breathing
• Calvin cycle
• biochar
• Integrated Carbon Observation System

References

1. ^ Sedjo, Roger.1993. The Carbon Cycle and Global Forest Ecosystem. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 70, 295-307. (via Oregon Wild Report on Forests, Carbon, and Global Warming)
2. ^ Trends in Carbon Dioxide — NOAA Earth System Research Laboratory
3. ^ Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute (MBARI) (2005-06-09). "Sinkers" provide missing piece in deep-sea puzzle. Press release. http://www.mbari.org/news/news_releases/2005/sinkers-release.pdf. Retrieved on 2007-10-07. 
4. ^ Typhoons Bury Tons of Carbon in the Oceans Newswise, Retrieved on July 27, 2008.
5. ^ Millero, Frank J. (2005). Chemical Oceanography (3 ed.). CRC Press. ISBN 0849322804. 
6. ^ Notes, Lecture. "The Carbon Cycle". Department of Atmospheric Sciences. University of Washington. http://www.atmos.washington.edu/2001Q1/211/notes_for_013001_lecture.html. Retrieved on 2008-07-08. 

Further reading

• Appenzeller, Tim (2004). "The case of the missing carbon". National Geographic Magazine. http://magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0402/feature5/index.html.  - article about the missing carbon sink
• Bolin, Bert; Degens, E. T.; Kempe, S.; Ketner, P. (1979). The global carbon cycle. Chichester ; New York: Published on behalf of the Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment (SCOPE) of the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) by Wiley. ISBN 0471997102. http://www.icsu-scope.org/downloadpubs/scope13/index.html. Retrieved on 2008-07-08. 
• Houghton, R. A. (2005). "The contemporary carbon cycle". in William H Schlesinger (editor). Biogeochemistry. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science. pp. 473–513. ISBN 0080446426. 
• Janzen, H. H. (2004). "Carbon cycling in earth systems—a soil science perspective". Agriculture, ecosystems and environment 104 (3): 399–417. doi:10.1016/j.agee.2004.01.040. 
• Millero, Frank J. (2005). Chemical Oceanography (3 ed.). CRC Press. ISBN 0849322804. 
• Sundquist, Eric; Broecker, Wallace S.(editors) (1985). The Carbon Cycle and Atmospheric CO₂: Natural variations Archean to Present. Geophysical Monographs Series. American Geophysical Union. 

External links

• Carbon Cycle Science Program - an interagency partnership.
• NOAA's Carbon Cycle Greenhouse Gases Group
• Global Carbon Project - initiative of the Earth System Science Partnership
• UNEP - The present carbon cycle - Climate Change carbon levels and flows
• NASA's Orbiting Carbon Observatory

v • d • e Biogeochemical cycles Carbon cycle - Hydrogen cycle - Nitrogen cycle - Oxygen cycle - Phosphorus cycle - Sulfur cycle - Water cycle

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