castor oil

[Possibly from a former use as a substitute for castor in medicine.]

A pale-coloured oil extracted from the castor-oil plant. It contains a mixture of glycerides of fatty acids, the predominant acid being ricinoleic acid, C₁₇H₃₂(OH)COOH. It is used as a drying oil in paints and varnishes and medically as a laxative.

Oil from the seeds of the castor oil plant, Ricinus spp. The oil itself is not irritating, but in the small intestine it is hydrolysed by lipase to release ricinoleic acid, which is irritant to the intestinal mucosa and therefore acts as a purgative. The seeds also contain the toxic lectin, ricin.

Description

Castor oil is a natural plant oil obtained from the seed of the castor plant. The castor seed, or bean, is the source of numerous economically important products as one of the world's most important industrial oils, and was one of the earliest commercial products. Castor beans have been found in ancient Egyptian tombs dating back to 4000 B.C. According to the Ebers Papyrus, an Egyptian medical text from 1500 B.C., Egyptian doctors used castor oil to protect the eyes from irritation. The oil from the bean was used thousands of years ago in facial oils and in wick lamps for lighting. Castor oil has been used medicinally in the United States since the days of the pioneers. Traveling medicine men in the late 1800s peddled castor oil, often mixed with as much as 40% alcohol, as a heroic cure for everything from constipation to heartburn. It was also used to induce labor. At the present time, castor oil is used internally as a laxative and externally as a castor oil pack or poultice.

The castor plant, whose botanical name is Ricinus communis, is native to the Ethiopian region of east Africa. It now grows in tropical and warm temperate regions throughout the world and is becoming an abundant weed in the southwestern United States. Castor plants grow along stream banks, river beds, bottom lands, and in almost any warm area where the soil is well drained and with sufficient nutrients and moisture to sustain growth. They are annuals that can grow 6–15 ft (1.8–5 m) tall in one season with full sunlight, heat, and moisture. The tropical leaves, with five to nine pointed, finger-like lobes, may be 4–30 in (10–76 cm) across. Flowers occur on the plant (which is monoecious, meaning that there are separate male and female flowers on the same individual), during most of the year in dense terminal clusters, with female flowers just above the male flowers. Each female flower consists of a spiny ovary, which develops into the fruit or seed capsule, and a bright red structure with feathery branches (stigma lobes) to receive pollen from the male flowers. Each male flower consists of a cluster of many stamens that shed pollen that is distributed by wind. The spiny seed pod or capsule is composed of three sections, or carpels, that split apart at maturity. Each carpel contains a single seed. As the carpel dries and splits open, the seed is ejected, often with considerable force. The seeds are slightly larger than pinto beans and are covered with intricate mottled designs, none of which have exactly the same pattern due to genetic variations. At one end of the seed is a small spongy structure called the caruncle, which aids in the absorption of water when the seeds are planted.

The name "castor" was given to the plant by English traders who confused its oil with the oil of another shrub, Vitex agnus—Castus, which the Spanish and Portuguese in Jamaica called agno-casto. The scientific name of the plant was given by the eighteenth-century Swedish naturalist Carolus Linnaeus. Ricinus is the Latin word for tick; apparently Linnaeus thought the castor bean looked like a tick, especially a tick in engorged with blood, with the caruncle of the bean resembling the tick's head. Communis means "common" in Latin. Castor plants were already commonly naturalized in many parts of the world by the eighteenth century.

There are several cultivated varieties of the castor plant, all of which have striking foliage colorations. The castor plant grows rapidly with little care and produces lush tropical foliage. Its use as a cultivated plant should be discouraged because its seeds or beans are extremely poisonous. Children should be taught to recognize and avoid the plant and its seeds, especially in the southwestern United States where it grows wild near residential areas. Flower heads can be snipped off of castor plants as a protective measure.

The active poison in the castor bean is ricin, a deadly water-soluble protein called a lectin. The ricin is left in the meal or cake after the oil is extracted from the bean, so castor oil does not contain any of the poison. The seed is only toxic if the outer shell is broken or chewed. Humans and horses are most susceptible to ricin, although all pets and livestock should be kept away from the castor seed. It has been estimated that gram for gram, ricin is 6,000 times more deadly than cyanide and 12,000 times more deadly than rattlesnake venom. A dose of only 70 grams, or one two-millionth of an ounce (roughly equivalent to the weight of a single grain of table salt) is enough to kill a 160-pound person. Even small particles in open sores or in the eyes may be fatal. As few as four ingested seeds can kill an adult human. Lesser amounts may result in vomiting, severe abdominal pain, diarrhea, increased heart rate, profuse sweating, and convulsions. Signs of toxicity occur about 18–24 hours after ingestion. Ricin seems to cause clumping (agglutination) and breakdown (hemolysis) of red blood cells, hemorrhaging in the digestive tract, and damage to the liver and kidneys.

Ricin has attracted considerable attention as of early 2003 because of its association with terrorist groups. Although ricin cannot easily be used against large groups of people, it has been used to assassinate individuals by injection. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) considers ricin a B-list bioterrorism agent, meaning that it is relatively easy to make and is considered a moderate threat to life.

On the positive side, ricin is being investigated as a tool for cancer treatment. A promising use is the production of an immunotoxin in which the protein ricin is joined to monoclonal antibodies. The ricin-antibody conjugate, which is produced in a test tube, should theoretically travel directly to the site of a tumor, where the ricin can destroy the tumor cells without damaging other cells in the patient.

General Use

Internal Uses

Castor oil is a strong and effective cathartic or purgative (laxative), with components in the oil that affect both the small and large intestines. It has been used to clear the bowels after food poisoning and to relieve constipation. It is sometimes used in hospitals to prepare the patient's abdomen for x rays of the colon or kidneys. Castor oil is classified as a stimulant laxative, also known as a contact laxative. This type of laxative encourages bowel movements by acting on the intestinal wall, increasing the muscle contractions that move along the stool mass. Stimulants are a popular type of laxative for self-treatment, but unfortunately are more likely to cause side effects. There are milder types of laxatives that may be more useful for inducing regularity and treating constipation. Generally laxatives should be used to provide short-term relief only, unless otherwise directed by a doctor.

Castor oil is frequently used in animal experiments to test the effects of new medications on the gastrointestinal tract.

If castor oil has been prescribed by a doctor, his or her instructions for the timing and quantity of doses should be followed. For self-treatment, users should follow the manufacturer's instructions. At least 6–8 glasses (8 oz each) of liquids should be taken each day to soften the stools. Castor oil is usually taken on an empty stomach for rapid effect. Because results usually occur within two to six hours, castor oil is not usually taken late in the day. The unpleasant taste of castor oil may be improved by chilling it in the refrigerator for at least an hour. It may then be stirred into a glass of cold orange juice. Flavored preparations of castor oil are also available.

External Uses

Castor oil is also used topically to treat corns. The oil is applied once or twice daily directly to the corns, which are surrounded with adhesive-backed corn aperture pads made of felt to hold the oil. The corns are then covered with hypoallergenic silk tape. After soaking with the castor oil, the corns will be softened for removal with a pumice stone. Castor oil can be used in a similar manner to remove warts. Castor oil is also used to treat ring-worm, abscesses, bruises, dry skin, dermatitis, sunburn, open sores, and other skin conditions. Additional less well-known uses of castor oil include hair tonics, cosmetics, and contraceptive creams and jellies.

For menstrual cramping, especially when fibroids may be present or when flows are heavy, castor oil packs may be placed on the abdomen for up to an hour. The packs are made by soaking square or rectangular pieces of cotton, cotton flannel, or undyed wool 2–4 in (5–10 cm) thick with 4–6 oz 118–177 ml) of castor oil. The pack is folded over once or twice, placed directly on the abdomen, and covered with plastic wrap. Over the pack, a water bottle or a heating pad on a low setting may be used to keep the pack warm. After use, the skin may be cleansed with a warm solution of baking soda and water (2 tsp of baking soda to 1 qt water). Some herbal therapists maintain that castor oil packs may aid in shrinking small fibroids. Castor oil packs have also been used in the treatment of many other diseases and disorders, including breast pain, digestive tract problems, abscesses, hemorrhoids, wounds, and gallstones.

Nonmedical Uses

Castor oil and its derivatives also are used in many industrial products, including paint and varnish, fabric coatings and protective coverings, insulation, food containers, soap, ink, plastics, brake fluids, insecticidal oils, and guns. It is a primary raw material for the production of nylon and other synthetic resins and fibers, and a basic ingredient in racing motor oil for high-performance automobile and motorcycle engines. Castor oil is also used as a fuel additive for two-cycle engines, imparting a distinctive aroma to their exhaust. Even though it is malodorous and distasteful, it is the source of several synthetic flower scents and fruit flavors.

Preparations

Castor oil for medicinal purposes is pressed from the seeds of the castor plant and is slightly yellow or colorless. It has a lingering nauseating aftertaste, even though peppermint or fruit juices are sometimes added as flavor enhancers in an attempt to disguise its disagreeable taste. Castor oil is available in both oil and emulsified liquid preparations.

Precautions

Castor oil should not be used by a pregnant woman, as it can cause contractions. Castor oil should not be used if a patient is hypersensitive to the castor bean; or has an intestinal obstruction, abdominal pain, cramping, bloating, soreness, nausea, vomiting, fecal impaction, or any signs of appendicitis or an inflamed bowel. It should not be used by anyone for more than a week unless a doctor has ordered otherwise. Overuse of a laxative may lead to dependence on it. Any sudden changes in bowel habits or function that last longer than two weeks should be checked by a doctor before using a laxative.

Children up to the age of six should not take a laxative unless prescribed by a doctor. In older adults, the use of castor oil may worsen weakness, lack of coordination, or dizziness and light-headedness.

External overexposure to castor oil may result in a slight local skin irritation. The irritated area should be washed with soap and water.

Side Effects

Side effects of castor oil that require medical attention include:

• confusion
• irregular heartbeat
• muscle cramps
• skin rash
• unusual tiredness or weakness

There are other less serious side effects that are less common and may go away as the patient's body adjusts to the castor oil. These side effects include belching, cramping, diarrhea, and nausea. If they do continue or are bothersome, the person should check with a doctor. In addition, because castor oil causes a complete emptying of the contents of the intestine, patients should be advised that they may not have another bowel movement for two to three days after a dose of castor oil.

Interactions

Patients should not take castor oil within two hours of taking other types of medicine, because the desired effect of the other medicine may be reduced. Patients who are taking digitalis, digoxin, or a diuretic should consult their physician before taking castor oil, as the castor oil may intensify the effects of these drugs by causing the body to lose potassium.

Resources

Books

McGarey, William G. The Oil That Heals: A Physician's Successes with Castor Oil Treatments. A.R. E. Press, 1993.

Wilson, Billie Ann, et al. Nurses Drug Guide 1995. Norwalk, CT: Appleton & Lange, 1995.

Periodicals

Layne, Marty. "Castor Oil: A Great Home Remedy for Bumps, Bruises and Cuts." Natural Life (July-August 2002): 14-15.

Lyall, Sarah. "Arrest of Terror Suspects in London Turns Up a Deadly Toxin." New York Times, January 8, 2003.

Rahman, M. T., M. Alimuzzaman, S. Ahmad, et al. "Antinociceptive and Antidiarrhoeal Activity of Zanthoxylum rhetsa." Fitoterapia 73 (July 2002): 340-342.

Sandvig, K., and B. van Deurs. "Transport of Protein Toxins Into Cells: Pathways Used by Ricin, Cholera Toxin and Shiga Toxin." FEBS Letter 529 (October 2, 2002): 49-53.

Organizations

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 1600 Clifton Road, Atlanta, GA 30333. (404) 639-3311. .

National Digestive Diseases Information Clearinghouse. National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Disease. National Institutes of Health. 2 Information Way. Bethesda, MD 20892-3570. (310) 654-3810.

[Article by: Judith Sims; Rebecca J. Frey, PhD]

A fixed oil obtained from the seed of the castor bean plant (ricinus communis); it has an irritant effect on the intestines and acts as a powerful purgative. Castor oil is also used externally as an emollient in seborrheic dermatitis and other skin diseases.

• c. o. plant — see ricinus communis.
• false c. o. plant — see datura.

Castor beans.

Castor oil is a vegetable oil obtained from the castor bean (technically castor seed as the castor plant, Ricinus communis, is not a member of the bean family). Castor oil (CAS number 8001-79-4) is a colorless to very pale yellow liquid with mild or no odor or taste. Its boiling point is 313 °C (595 °F) and its density is 961 kg·m⁻³.^[1] It is a triglyceride in which approximately ninety percent of fatty acid chains are ricinoleic acid. Oleic and linoleic acids are the other significant components.^[2]

Contents 1 Background 2 Castor oil fatty acids 3 Uses 3.1 Castor oil in food 3.2 Medicinal use of castor oil 3.2.1 Traditional or folk medicines 3.3 Industrial castor oil 3.4 Uses in early aviation and aeromodelling 4 Use as a means of intimidation in Fascist Italy 4.1 Linguistic connotations 5 See also 6 References 7 External links

Background

Structure of the major component of castor oil.

Ricinoleic acid, a monounsaturated, 18-carbon fatty acid, is unusual in that it has a hydroxyl functional group on the twelfth carbon. This functional group causes ricinoleic acid (and castor oil) to be unusually polar, and also allows chemical derivatization that is not practical with most other seed oils. It is the hydroxyl group which makes castor oil and ricinoleic acid valuable as chemical feedstocks. Compared to other seed oils which lack the hydroxyl group, castor oil commands a higher price. As an example, in July 2007 Indian castor oil sold for about US$0.90 per kilogram (US$0.41 per pound)^[3] while U.S. soybean, sunflower and canola oil sold for about US$0.30 per kilogram (US$0.14 per pound).^[4]

Castor oil and its derivatives have applications in the manufacturing of soaps, lubricants, hydraulic and brake fluids, paints, dyes, coatings, inks, cold resistant plastics, waxes and polishes, nylon, pharmaceuticals and perfumes.

Sulfonated castor oil, also called sulfated castor oil, or Turkey Red Oil, is the only oil that completely disperses in water. It is made by adding sulfuric acid to pure castor oil.^[5] This allows easy use for making bath oil products. It was the first synthetic detergent after ordinary soap. It is used in formulating lubricants, softeners, and dyeing assistants.^[6]

The castor seed contains ricin, a toxic protein removed by cold pressing and filtering.^[7] However, harvesting castor beans is not without risk.^[8] Allergenic compounds found on the plant surface can cause permanent nerve damage, making the harvest of castor beans a human health risk. India, Brazil, and China are the major crop producers and the workers suffer harmful side effects from working with these plants.^[9] These health issues, in addition to concerns about the toxic byproduct (ricin) from castor oil production, have encouraged the quest for alternative sources for hydroxy fatty acids.^[10][11] Alternatively, some researchers are trying to genetically modify the castor plant to prevent the synthesis of ricin.^[12]

Castor oil fatty acids

Average composition of Castor seed oil / fatty acid chains
Acid name	Average Percentage Range
Ricinoleic acid	85	to	95%
Oleic acid	6	to	2%
Linoleic acid	5	to	1%
Linolenic acid	1	to	0.5%
Stearic acid	1	to	0.5%
Palmitic acid	1	to	0.5%
Dihydroxystearic acid	0.5	to	0.3%
Others	0.5	to	0.2%

Uses

Castor oil in food

In the food industry, castor oil (food grade) is used in food additives,^[13] flavorings, candy (e.g., chocolate),^[14] as a mold inhibitor, and in packaging. Polyoxyethylated castor oil (e.g., Cremophor EL)^[15] is also used in the foodstuff industries.^[16]

Medicinal use of castor oil

The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has categorized castor oil as "generally recognized as safe and effective" (GRASE) for over-the-counter use as a laxative, with its major site of action the small intestine.^[17] However, although it may be used for constipation, it is not a preferred treatment.^[18] Undecylenic acid, a castor oil derivative, is also FDA-approved for over-the-counter use on skin disorders or skin problems.^[19]

Castor oil penetrates deep into the skin thanks to its molecular weight, which is low enough to penetrate into the stratum corneum. Castor Isostearate Succinate is a polymeric mixture of esters with Isostearic Acid and Succinic Acid used for skin conditioning, such as in shampoo, lipstick and lip balm.^[20]

Ricinoleic acid is the main component of castor oil and it exerts anti-inflammatory effects.^[21]

One study has found that castor oil decreased pain more than ultrasound gel or Vaseline during extracorporeal shockwave application.^[22]

Therapeutically, modern drugs are rarely given in a pure chemical state, so most active ingredients are combined with excipients or additives. Castor oil, or a castor oil derivative such as Cremophor EL (polyethoxylated castor oil, a nonionic surfactant), is added to many modern drugs, including:

• Miconazole, an anti-fungal agent;^[23][24]
• Paclitaxel, a mitotic inhibitor used in cancer chemotherapy;^[25]
• Sandimmune (cyclosporine injection, USP), an immunosuppressant drug widely used in connection with organ transplant to reduce the activity of the patient's immune system;^[26]
• Nelfinavir mesylate, an HIV protease inhibitor;^[27]
• Saperconazole, a triazole antifungal agent (contains Emulphor EL-719P, a castor oil derivative);^[28]
• Tacrolimus, an immunosuppressive drug (contains HCO-60, polyoxyl 60 hydrogenated castor oil);^{[citation needed]}
• Xenaderm ointment, a topical treatment for skin ulcers is a combination of Peru balsam, castor oil, and trypsin;^[29][30]
• Aci-Jel (composed of ricinoleic acid from castor oil, with acetic acid and oxyquinoline), used to maintain the acidity of the vagina.^[31]

Traditional or folk medicines

The use of cold pressed castor oil in folk medicine predates government medical regulations. Cold pressed castor oil is tasteless and odorless when pure. Uses include skin problems, burns, sunburns, skin disorders, skin cuts, and abrasions. Castor oil has also been used to draw out styes in the eye by pouring a small amount into the eye and allowing it to circulate around the inside of the eyelid. Note that most bottles of castor oil indicate the oil is to be kept away from the eyes. The oil is also used as a rub or pack for various ailments, including abdominal complaints, headaches, muscle pains, inflammatory conditions, skin eruptions, lesions, and sinusitis. A castor oil pack is made by soaking a piece of flannel in castor oil, then putting it on the area of complaint and placing a heat source, such as a hot water bottle, on top of it. This remedy was often suggested by the American psychic Edgar Cayce, given in many healing readings in the early mid-1900s. Castor oil has also been noted for its acne-healing abilities.^[32]

Castor oil has been used to induce childbirth in pregnant women, though it is not always effective in application. Castor oil, when ingested, triggers cramping in the bowel (making it an effective laxative). Thus, it is intended that such cramping extend to the uterus. In an overdue pregnancy in which the mother's cervix is already effacing and partially dilated, this cramping can lead to labor contractions. The irregular, painful contractions of castor-oil-induced labor can be stressful on the mother and fetus.^{[citation needed]} It also leaves the laboring woman quite dehydrated as a result of the vomiting and diarrhea which result when the recommended dose of castor oil for labor induction is taken—2 oz, or about 8 tbsp. This leaves her without access to the energy she could otherwise derive from food or drink throughout her labor process. Using castor oil for induction is not recommended without consulting a medical practitioner and is not recommended in a complex pregnancy.^{[citation needed]}. In south Egypt, women use a dose of full large spoon of castor oil to prevent pregnancy for one year.

Industrial castor oil

Castor oil has numerous applications in transportation, cosmetics and pharmaceutical, and manufacturing industries, for example: adhesives,^[33] brake fluids,^[34] caulks, dyes,^[33] electrical liquid dielectrics, humectants,^[33] hydraulic fluids, inks,^[33] lacquers, leather treatments,^[33] lubricating greases, machining oils, paints,^[33] pigments, polyurethane adhesives,^[35] refrigeration lubricants, rubbers,^[33] sealants, textiles,^[33] washing powders, and waxes.

Vegetable oils, due to their good lubricity and biodegradability are attractive alternatives to petroleum-derived lubricants, but oxidative stability and low temperature performance limit their widespread use.^[36] Castor oil has better low temperature viscosity properties and high temperature lubrication than most vegetable oils, making it useful as a lubricant in jet, diesel, and race-car engines.^[37] However, castor oil tends to form gums in a short time, and its use is therefore restricted to engines that are regularly rebuilt, such as race engines. Biodegradability results in decreased persistence in the environment (relative to petroleum-based lubricants^[38]) in case of an accidental release. The lubricants company Castrol took its name from castor oil.

Since it is has a relatively high dielectric constant (4.7), highly refined and dried castor oil is sometimes used as a dielectric fluid within high performance high voltage capacitors.

Castor oil is the raw material for the production of a number of chemicals, notably sebacic acid, undecylenic acid, nylon-11. A review listing numerous chemicals derived from castor oil is available.^[39]

Castor oil is the preferred lubricant for bicycle pumps, most likely because it doesn't dissolve natural-rubber seals.^[40]

Uses in early aviation and aeromodelling

Castor oil was the preferred lubricant for the early aviation powerplant design known as the rotary engine, such as the Gnome engines used in pre-World War I "pioneer aircraft", after that engine's widespread adoption for aviation in Europe in 1909, and was used almost universally by the rotary engines in World War I Allied aircraft.

The methanol-fuelled glow plug engines used for aeromodelling purposes, since their adoption in the model airplane hobby in 1948, have used castor oil as a dependable lubricant that is highly resistant to degradation when the engine has its fuel-air mixture "leaned out" for maximum engine speed. The aforementioned gummy residue problem can still be troublesome for aeromodelling powerplants lubricated with castor oil, however, usually resulting in eventual ball bearing replacement when the residue builds up too much within the engine's bearing races.

Castor biofuel farming started in 2008 in Ethiopia. Families in the Waletia and Goma Gofa regions of Ethiopia began by seeding castor beans for use in biodiesel. The initiative is run by energy company Global Energy Ethiopia, who are also conducting a research and development programme to create new varieties of castor with better yields. (Sub-Saharan Africa gateway, Science and Development Network website, 2008)

Use as a means of intimidation in Fascist Italy

In Fascist Italy under the regime of Benito Mussolini, castor oil was one of the tools of the blackshirts.^[41][42][43] Political dissidents were force-fed large quantities of castor oil by Fascist paramilitary groups. This technique was said to have been originated by Gabriele D'Annunzio. Victims of this treatment rarely died, though often had to bear the humiliation of the laxative effects resulting from excessive consumption of the oil.^[44]

It is said that Mussolini's power was backed by "the bludgeon and castor oil". In lesser quantities, castor oil was also used as an instrument of intimidation, for example to discourage civilians or soldiers who would call in sick either in the factory or in the military. Since its healing properties were widely exaggerated, abuse could be easily masked under pretense of a doctor's prescription. It took decades after Mussolini's death before the myth of castor oil as a panacea for a wide range of diseases and medical conditions was totally demystified, as it was also widely administered to pregnant women, elderly or mentally-ill patients in hospitals in the false belief that it had no negative side effects.

Linguistic connotations

Today the Italian terms manganello and olio di ricino, even used separately, still carry strong political connotations. These words are still used to satirize patronizing politicians, or the authors of disliked legislation. They should be used with caution in common conversation. The terms Usare l'olio di ricino, ("to use castor oil") and usare il manganello ("use the bludgeon") mean "to coerce or abuse," and can be misunderstood in the absence of proper context.

See also

• Castor plant
• Castor wax
• Ricin

References

1. ^ Aldrich Handbook of Fine Chemicals and Laboratory Equipment, Sigma-Aldrich, 2003.
2. ^ NNFCC "Castor", The National Non-Food Crops Centre, Retrieved on 2009-02-23
3. ^ "July 2007 commodity price for Indian castor oil". http://www.castorworld.com/market.asp. Retrieved 2008-08-10. 
4. ^ "Seed oil prices from US Dept. of Agriculture, see page 31" (PDF). http://www.fas.usda.gov/oilseeds/circular/2007/July/oilseedsfull0707.pdf. Retrieved 2008-08-10. 
5. ^ Turkey Red Oil - A defoaming & wetting agent, manure, lubricant
6. ^ CastorOil.in – Home of Castor Oil Online
7. ^ "Castor Oil is non-toxic". ICOA. http://www.icoa.org/toxic.htm. Retrieved 2006-12-28. 
8. ^ Auld, Dick L.; Pinkerton,Scott D.; Rolfe, Rial; Ghetie, Victor and Lauterbach, Brenda F. (1999). "Selection of Castor for Divergent Concentrations of Ricin and Ricinus communis Agglutinin and references therein" (PDF). Crop Science 39 (MARCH–APRIL): 353–357. http://crop.scijournals.org/cgi/reprint/39/2/353.pdf. Retrieved 2007-07-31. 
9. ^ "Hazards of harvesting castor plants". http://www.linnaeus.net/problem_with_castor.htm. Retrieved 2007-07-31. 
10. ^ Dierig, David A. (1995). "Lesquerella". New Crop FactSHEET. Center for New Crops & Plant Products, at Purdue University. http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/cropfactsheets/Lesquerella.html. Retrieved 2007-08-01. 
11. ^ Dierig, David A. (2002). "Lesquerella" (PDF). The National Non-Food Crops Centre. http://www.nnfcc.co.uk/crops/info/lesquerella.pdf. Retrieved 2007-08-01. 
12. ^ Wood, M. (2001). "High-Tech Castor Plants May Open Door to Domestic Production". Agricultural Research Magazine 49 (1). http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/archive/jan01/plant0101.htm. Retrieved 2007-08-02. 
13. ^ Castor Oil Facts
14. ^ Wilson R, Van Schie BJ, Howes D (1998). "Overview of the preparation, use and biological studies on polyglycerol polyricinoleate (PGPR)". Food Chem. Toxicol. 36 (9-10): 711–8. doi:10.1016/S0278-6915(98)00057-X. PMID 9737417. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0278-6915(98)00057-X. 
15. ^ "BASF Technical data sheet on Cremophor EL" (PDF). http://www.basf-korea.co.kr/.../04_finechemicals/document/cosmetic/tech/surfactants/down.asp?file=cremophorel.pdf. Retrieved 2007-08-01. 
16. ^ Busso C, Castro-Prado MA (March 2004). "Cremophor EL stimulates mitotic recombination in uvsH//uvsH diploid strain of Aspergillus nidulans". An. Acad. Bras. Cienc. 76 (1): 49–55. PMID 15048194. http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0001-37652004000100005&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en. 
17. ^ "Ingredient List A-C" (PDF). FDA (see page 52 of this link). http://www.fda.gov/cder/Offices/OTC/Ingredient_List_A-C.pdf. Retrieved 2006-12-28. 
18. ^ Castor Oil. DRUGDEX System. n.d. Thomson Micromedex. Retrieved February 19, 2007 [1]
19. ^ "Ingredient List P-Z" (PDF). FDA (see page 65 of this link). http://www.fda.gov/cder/Offices/OTC/Ingredient_List_P-Z.pdf. Retrieved 2006-12-28. 
20. ^ Skin-Conditioning Agents by the Environmental Working Group
21. ^ Vieira C, Evangelista S, Cirillo R, Lippi A, Maggi CA, Manzini S (2000). "Effect of ricinoleic acid in acute and subchronic experimental models of inflammation". Mediators Inflamm. 9 (5): 223–8. doi:10.1080/09629350020025737. PMID 11200362. 
22. ^ Maier M, Staupendahl D, Duerr HR, Refior HJ (1999). "Castor oil decreases pain during extracorporeal shock wave application". Arch Orthop Trauma Surg 119 (7-8): 423–7. doi:10.1007/s004020050013. PMID 10613232. http://link.springer.de/link/service/journals/00402/bibs/9119007/91190423.htm. 
23. ^ Marmion LC, Desser KB, Lilly RB, Stevens DA (September 1976). "Reversible thrombocytosis and anemia due to miconazole therapy". Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 10 (3): 447–9. doi:10.1128/AAC.. PMID 984785. PMC 429768. http://aac.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=984785.  See page 1, Methods and Materials.
24. ^ Fromtling RA (01 April 1988). "Overview of medically important antifungal azole derivatives". Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 1 (2): 187–217. PMID 3069196. PMC 358042. http://cmr.asm.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=3069196.  See page 6, /192, Clinical studies
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29. ^ "Product Information: Xendaderm topical ointment, balsam Peru, castor oil and trypsin topical ointment. Healthpoint,Ltd., San Antonio, TX, 2002". http://www.healthpoint.com/divisions/tm/prodXenaderm.cfm. Retrieved 2007-10-11. 
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44. ^ The Straight Dope: Did Mussolini use castor oil as an instrument of torture?

External links

• International Chemical Safety Card 1452

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v • d • e Edible fats and oils Fats Bacon fat • Blubber • Butter • Clarified butter • Cocoa butter • Dripping • Duck fat • Ghee • Lard • Margarine • Niter kibbeh • Salo • Schmaltz • Shea butter • Smen • Suet • Tallow • Vegetable shortening Oils Almond oil • Argan oil • Avocado oil • Canola oil • Cashew oil • Castor oil • Coconut oil • Colza oil • Corn oil • Cottonseed oil • Fish oil • Grape seed oil • Hazelnut oil • Hemp oil • Linseed oil (flaxseed oil) • Macadamia oil • Marula oil • Mongongo nut oil • Mustard oil • Olive oil • Palm oil (palm kernel oil) • Peanut oil • Pecan oil • Perilla oil • Pine nut oil • Pistachio oil • Poppyseed oil • Pumpkin seed oil • Rapeseed oil • Rice bran oil • Safflower oil • Sesame oil • Soybean oil • Sunflower oil • Tea seed oil • Walnut oil • Watermelon seed oil • Whale oil See also: List of vegetable oils • Cooking oil

• Castor biofuel farming starts in Ethiopia

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