Infrared Chalcogenide Glass IRG 26 (IG6), Hardness (Knoop) 1.04 GPA

Scott J. Kirkby has written:

'Spectroscopy and crystallography of metal germanium chalcogenide framework materials and precursors'

Keiji Tanaka has written:

'Amorphous chalcogenide semiconductors and related materials' -- subject(s): Chalcogenides, Semiconductors, Materials, Electric properties

Today's memory and storage hierarchy consists of embedded SRAM on the processor die and DRAM as main

memory on one side, and HDDs for high-capacity storage on the other side. Flash memory, in the form of solidstate-

disks (SSD), has recently gained a place in between DRAM and HDD, bridging the large gap in latency

(105 times) and cost (100 times) between them. However, the use of Flash in applications with intense data

traffic, i.e., as main memory or cache, is still hampered by the large performance gap in terms of latency between

DRAM and Flash (still 1000 times), and the low endurance of Flash (104 - 105 cycles), which deteriorates with

scaling and more aggressive MLC functionality. MLC technology has become the focus of the Flash vendors

because they target the huge consumer-electronics market, where the low cost per gigabyte of MLC plays a very

important role, but it suffers from endurance and latency issues, which could be problematic for enterprise-class

applications. For example, at the 32-nm technology node and 2 bits per cell, it is expected that the standard

consumer-grade MLC will offer a write/erase endurance of approx. 3,000 cycles, which clearly will not suffice

for enterprise-class storage applications. On the other hand, an enterprise-grade MLC with higher cost per

gigabyte could offer a write/erase endurance of 104 to 3 104, albeit with a slower programming latency of

approx. 1.6 ms. These limitations of the MLC technology necessitate the use of more complex error-correction

coding (ECC) schemes and Flash management functions, which, depending on the workload, could improve the

reliability and hide the latency issues to a certain extent- but certainly not to full satisfaction.

Moreover, as we go down on the technology node, these issues will be further aggravated, and new challenges

will have to be resolved. For example, the stringent data-retention requirements, in particular for enterprisestorage

systems, impose a practical limit for the thickness of the tunnel oxide. Another challenge in the scaling

of floating-gate NAND is floating-gate interference. To resolve this issue, a charge-trapping layer has been proposed

as an alternative technology to the floating gate [2]. In general, it was believed for a long time that by

moving to charge-trapping storage it would be possible to scale at least to the 22-nm lithography generation.

However, recently a very promising trend towards stacking memory cells in three dimensions in what is called

3D memory technology has emerged, and leading NAND Flash memory manufacturers are already pursuing it

[11]. Of course, this 3D memory technology will not truly have an impact on reliability, endurance and latency,

but it will offer much larger capacities at even lower cost in the future. For all these reasons, NAND Flash is not

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expected to become an SCM technology in general.

Scaling issues are also critical for other solid-state memories, such as SRAM and DRAM. Specifically,

SRAM suffers from signal-to-noise-ratio degradation and 10x leakage increase with every technology node, and

DRAM faces a continuous increase of the refresh current.

Hence, there is a large opportunity for new solid-state nonvolatile memory technologies with "universal

memory" characteristics. These technologies should not only extend the lifetime of existing memories, but

also revolutionize the entire memory-storage hierarchy by bridging the gap between memory (fast, expensive,

volatile) and storage (slow, inexpensive, permanent). The requirements of this new family of technologies

called SCM [1] are nonvolatility, solid-state implementation (no moving parts), low write/read latency (tens to

hundreds of nanoseconds), high endurance (more than 108 cycles), low cost per bit (i.e., between the cost per bit

of DRAM and Flash), and scalability to future technology nodes.

Many new nonvolatile solid-state memory technologies have recently emerged. The objective has not only

been to realize dense memory arrays and show a viable scalability roadmap, but also to achieve a performance

superior to that of Flash memory in many aspects. The catalog of new technologies is very long, and they may

be broadly categorized into charge-trap-based, capacitance-based and resistance-based memories. Charge-trap

based memories are basically extensions of the current floating-gate-based Flash and, while offering advantages

in reliability, suffer from the same drawbacks that afflict Flash technology, namely, low endurance and slow

writing speeds. Capacitance-based memories, in particular ferroelectric memories (FeRAM), exhibit practically

infinite cycling endurance and very fast read/write speeds, but are hampered by short retention times and, even

more importantly, their limited scaling potential up to the 22-nm node [12].

Resistance-based memories encompass a very broad range of materials, switching mechanisms and associated

devices. Following the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS), one may categorize

resistance-based memories into nanomechanical, spin torque transfer, nanothermal, nanoionic, electronic effects,

macromolecular and molecular memories [12]. Of these technologies, those that have received more attention

by the scientific community and the semiconductor industry and are thus in a more advanced state of research

and/or development, are spin torque transfer, nanoionic and thermal memories. We will take a closer look at

these technologies next.

Spin-torque transfer memory (STTRAM) [13]-[15] is an advanced version of the magnetic random access

memory (MRAM) in which the switching mechanism is based on the magnetization change of a ferromagnetic

layer induced by a spin-polarized current flowing through it. The most appealing features of STTRAM are its

very high read/write speed, on the order of 10 ns or less, and its practically unlimited endurance. Important challenges

are overcoming the small resistance range (between low and high resistance), which limits the possibility

of MLC storage, and achieving adequate margins not only between read and write voltages but also between

write and breakdown voltages for reliable operation, especially at high speeds.

Nanoionic memories [16]-[21] are characterized by a metal-insulator-metal (MIM) structure, in which the

"metal" typically is a good electrical conductor (possibly even dissimilar on the two sides of the device) and

the "insulator" consists of an ion-conducting material. Typical insulator materials reported so far include binary

or ternary oxides, chalcogenides, metal sulfides, and even organic compounds. The basic switching mechanism

in nanoionic memories is believed to be the combination of ionic transport and electrochemical redox reactions

[19]. Most of these technologies-with very few exceptions-are still in a very early stage of research, with

many of their interesting features derived from projections or extrapolations from limited experimental data. As

is generally known, the actual issues associated with a particular technology will likely only manifest themselves

in large demonstration device test vehicles, so that it may well be that the road to widespread adoption of

nanoionic memories is still a long one.

The best known thermal memory is phase-change memory (PCM). This discussion focuses on PCM, mainly

because of the very large activity around it and the advanced state of development it has reached, allowing

credible projections regarding its ultimate potential. The active material in PCM is a chalcogenide, typically

involving at least two of the materials Ge, Sb and Te, with the most common compound being Ge2Sb2Te5

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or, simply, GST. The active material is placed between two electrically conducting electrodes. The resistance

switching is induced by the current flowing through the active material, which causes a structural change of

the material due to Joule heating. Phase-change materials exhibit two meta-stable states, namely, a (poly)-

crystalline phase of long-range order and high electrical conductivity and an amorphous phase of short-range

order and low electrical conductivity. Switching to the amorphous phase (the RESET transition) is accomplished

by heating the material above its melting temperature followed by ultra-fast quenching, whereas the crystalline

phase (SET transition) is reached by heating the materials above its crystallization temperature and subsequent

annealing. The RESET transition necessitates high current, but this current has been shown to scale linearly with

the technology node as well as decrease significantly in confined memory cell architectures . The RESET

transition is fast, typically less than 50 ns in duration, whereas the SET transition is on the order of 100 ns,

although very fast materials exhibiting sub-20-ns switching times have been reported .

PCM scores well in terms of most of the desirable attributes of a SCM technology. In particular, it exhibits

very good endurance, typically exceeding 108 cycles, excellent retention, and superb scalability to sub-20-nm

nodes and beyond. Most importantly, these characteristic numbers have been measured on large prototype

devices and thus provide confidence regarding the true performance of the memory technology. On a smallerscale

device level, PCM has been shown to possess all the necessary characteristics of a SCM technology.

Specifically, sub-20-ns SET switching times have been reported with doped SbTe materials [23]. Furthermore,

an impressive device has been fabricated at the 17-nm design rule at 4F2 size, with further scaling prospects not

limited by lithography but only by the material film thickness . The same device showed an extrapolated

cycling endurance exceeding 1015 cycles. The ultimate scaling limits of phase change in chalcogenide materials

provide an indication regarding the future scaling of PCM. In a recent study, GST films that are a mere 2 nm

thick have been shown to crystallize when surrounded by proper cladding layers .

Apart from the necessary RESET current reduction and SET speed improvement discussed above, a significant

challenge of PCM technology is a phenomenon known as (short-term) resistance drift: The resistance of

a cell is observed to drift upwards in time, with the amorphous and partially-amorphous states drifting more

than their crystalline counterparts. This drift is believed to be of electronic nature, manifests itself as noise,

and seriously affects the reliability of MLC storage in PCM because of the reduced sensing margin between

adjacent tightly-packed resistance levels. Therefore, effective solutions of the drift issue are a key factor of the

cost competitiveness of PCM technology and thus of its suitability as SCM.

In summary, PCM is the only one of numerous emerging memory technologies that has evolved from the

basic research stage to the advanced development and late prototyping stage without encountering any fundamental

roadblocks. Advanced prototype PCM chips that at least partially meet the requirements for SCM

already exist today, and new and exciting device demonstrations have shown tremendous potential for

further improvement. These developments render PCM the leading technology candidate for SCM today, with

the potential to play an extended role in the memory and storage hierarchy of future computing systems.