Charadriidae

(vertebrate zoology) The plovers, a family of birds in the superfamily Charadrioidea.

(Charadriidae)

Class: Aves

Order: Charadriiformes

Suborder: Charadrii

Family: Charadriidae

Thumbnail description
Charadriids are small-to-medium, chunky shorebirds with rounded head, usually a "steep" forehead, short neck, and large eyes; typically black, brown, gray, and/or white; often with a bold pattern. Legs are short to medium and bill is typically shorter than the head

Size
5.5–16 in (14–40 cm); 1.25–10.5 oz (35–298g)

Number of genera, species
10 genera, 66 species

Habitat
Shorelines, wetlands, and open areas such as pastures, moors, and tundra

Conservation status
Critical, 1 species; Endangered, 2 species; Vulnerable, 5 species; Near Threatened, 6 species

Distribution
Worldwide except for Antarctica

Evolution and systematics

The family Charadriidae, including lapwings and plovers, is a fairly homogeneous group, although the number of genera has been extensively debated. Conservatively there are as few as six genera containing 56 species. Sibley and Monroe suggest as many as 11 genera containing 67 species, but in 1934, Peters divided the family into 34 genera with 61 species. In 2002, most authorities recognized 10 genera. Early efforts to understand the relationships within this family centered on skull characteristics, back color, and presence of a hind toe. These characteristics are no longer considered taxonomically significant. The two largest genera are Vanellus (lapwings) and Charadrius (ringed plovers and sandplovers).

Lapwings, with one exception, have a broad, black band near the tip of the tail; a terminal white band also is often present. The white-tailed lapwing (Vanellus leucurus) has a solid white tail and is sometimes placed, along with the sociable plover (Vanellus gregarius), in the genus Chettusia. Most lapwings, excepting V. vanellus and V. miles, also have a distinctive black-and-white wing pattern. Typically, primaries are black with a broad, white wing stripe extending diagonally across secondary coverts and secondaries. The blacksmith plover (Vanellus armatus) is sometimes placed in its own genus (Antibyx).

Charadrius plovers typically have a dark, complete or partial breast band and/or a white forehead with a dark line connecting the bill and eye. The shore plover (Thinornis novaeseelandiae) is sometimes included in Charadrius. Sibley and Monroe place the red-kneed dotterel (Charadrius cinctus) in the monotypic genus Erythrogonys, and the black-fronted dotterel (Charadrius melanops) in the monotypic genus Elseyornis. They also place the shore plover in Charadrius.

Smaller genera are Pluvialis (including the black-bellied plover [P. squatarola] and three golden-plovers), Eudromias (Eurasian dotterel E. morinellus), Oreopholus (tawny-throated dotterel O. ruficollis), wrybill (Anarhynchus frontalis), the inland dotterel (Peltohyas australis), Mitchell's plover (Phegornis mitchellii), and the Magellanic plover (Pluvianellus socialis). The common name "dotterel" is also used for some Charadrius species. The wrybill shares many characteristics with members of Charadrius, however, because of an unusual bill that bends to the right at about a 12° angle, it is placed in its own genus. The inland dotterel was formerly included in the courser family, Glareolidae. The Magellanic plover has unusually short legs and a bill that is unusually sharp for a plover. Some scientists consider the Magellanic plover more closely related to turnstones than to plovers; some place it in its own family, Pluvianellidae.

Physical characteristics

Charadriids are chunky, small to medium-sized shore-birds with short to medium-length legs, and a bill that is usually shorter than the head. Rarely colorful, most are black-and-white with shades of gray and brown, though many are boldly patterned with either dark rings around the neck and strong facial markings or boldly marked black and white wings. Many lapwings have colorful wattles on the head and spurs on the wings. The spurs are used as weapons in territorial disputes and in nest defense. The hind toe is absent or greatly reduced in all species.

Distribution

The family is worldwide in distribution with the exception of Antarctica. The genus Charadrius is found throughout the world with a Holarctic center. Lapwings (Vanellus) are found throughout much of the world but are absent from North America. The center of lapwing distribution is apparently Africa. Five separate dispersals from Africa to Eurasia and two to South America probably account for the current distribution of Vanellus.

Several Charadriids limited to the southern tips of southern continents may be the relic descendants of a now extinct Antarctic species or of migratory Northern Hemisphere species that established breeding populations on their wintering ranges.

North American representatives are American golden-plover (Pluvialis dominica), Pacific golden-plover (P. fulva), black-bellied plover (P. squatarola), mountain plover (Charadrius montanus), semipalmated plover (C. semipalmatus), long-billed plover (C. placidus), Wilson's plover (C. wilsonia), piping plover (C. melodus), killdeer (C. vociferus), and snowy plover (C. alexandrinus).

Habitat

Charadriids are primarily birds of open areas and are found along shorelines of salt and/or freshwater bodies and flooded areas or on moors or tundra. Open grasslands and farmlands are often favored. Many species take advantage of human-altered habitats such as agricultural lands, sewage ponds, golf courses, airports, and even gravel roads and rooftops. Lapwings are primarily freshwater birds, but some are found on arid grasslands. The long-toed lapwing feeds and sometimes nests on floating vegetation. Golden-plovers are also primarily freshwater birds, while the black-bellied plover prefers coastal areas.

Migratory species may summer and winter in very different habitats and visit additional habitats along migration routes.

Behavior

Charadriidae includes migrant and resident species. Most are at least semi-gregarious during migration and on wintering grounds, where they form small-to-large communal foraging and roosting flocks. Mitchell's plover is unusual in that it is rarely seen in groups larger than six. While most are strong and graceful fliers, they are most often seen rapidly running. They are active both during the day and night. Most are quite vocal and their vocalizations have often given rise to local names. The familiar "killdee killdee" given to killdeer inspired both the accepted common name and the specific name vociferus.

Feeding ecology and diet

Most forage by rapidly running, then suddenly stopping, looking, and pecking at prey. Foot trembling or patting of the substrate, presumably to reveal potential prey, is seen in many species. The spur-winged lapwing (Vanellus spinosus) stands on one leg and moves the other back and forth to flush potential prey, including small lizards. The wrybill uses its unusual bill to extract mayfly larvae and fish eggs that cling to the underside of stones. The inland dotterel feeds in groups on plants during the day, but at night is more active, solitary, and feeds on invertebrates. The Magellanic plover feeds by pecking and often actively scratches and digs. It turns over stones in a manner similar to that of a turnstone. The red-kneed dotterel, the most aquatic member of the family, swims well and often feeds by wading, and submerges its head. It rarely feeds on dry ground. The white-tailed plover feeds mostly in shallow water and occasionally submerges its head while searching for food. Berries, especially crowberries, may be particularly important to plovers arriving in frozen tundra habitats where few insects are yet available. Gulls have been reported stealing food from both northern lapwings and golden-plovers.

Reproductive biology

Most charadriids lay their eggs in scrapes on the ground. The shore plover is unusual in nesting at the end of a tunnel in thick vegetation, under loose stones, or even in an abandoned petrel burrow. Shore plovers vigorously defend their nests, but feeding areas are communal. Other plovers also commonly feed away from the breeding territory in communal feeding areas.

Clutch size varies from 2–6, but is most often four. Clutches of six are rare. Incubation requires 18–38 days. Young are precocial and leave the nest shortly after hatching; they fledge at between 21 and 42 days of age. Adults, with one exception, do not feed the young. The Magellanic plover lays two eggs, but only one chick typically survives and is fed by the adults until after fledging. Reportedly some feeding is by regurgitation.

Some species prefer nesting on recently burned ground, a preference that provides some protection from future fires, but which also provides chicks with access to a flush of arthropods that take advantage of new plant growth following a fire.

Most are solitary nesters, but the sociable and white-tailed plovers commonly nest in semi-colonial groups. Sociable plover groups include up to two dozen pairs with nests about 150 ft (46 m) apart. Each pair defends its own small territory. White-tailed plover colonies may contain several hundred pairs, and nests may be only a few yards apart. The little-ringed plover (C. dubius) occasionally nests communally with inter-nest distances of as little as 26 ft (8 m). Killdeer often nest near other killdeer in areas with favorable habitat.

Many plovers are seasonally monogamous and some retain the same mates in subsequent breeding season. Snowy plovers in western North America are facultatively polyandrous and polygynous. The southern lapwing (Vanellus chilensis), while typically monogamous, will engage in cooperative breeding. It and the wrybill are the only members of the family in which two birds of the same sex have definitely been observed caring for a single clutch.

In most species parental responsibilities are shared, although the female may desert the male after laying a second clutch. The Eurasian dotterel female takes little interest in caring for her first clutch and may lay additional clutches for later mates. She rarely assists in caring for the young, but may rejoin the family group when the young are nearly grown. In the mountain plover the female often initiates a second clutch that she incubates, leaving the male to care for the first clutch. Mountain plovers produce a maximum of one brood per adult, although it may re-nest up to four times. Most plovers produce from one to three broods annually, but those nesting in warm climates have the potential to produce more. Parental care includes incubation, brooding, leading the chicks to feeding areas, and protecting them from predators by giving warning calls, performing distraction displays, and, less commonly, attacking potential predators. Distraction displays, including injury feigning and false brooding, are particularly well-developed in this family.

Some plovers, including white-fronted (C. marginatus) and Kittlitz's (C. pecuarius), typically nest in sand and cover the nest with sand when unattended. The white-fronted sand-plover brings water to the nest in its belly feathers. Other plovers such as the killdeer wet their belly feathers to help cool the eggs on extremely hot days. Adults in hot climates often spend much of their time shading eggs as opposed to incubating.

The nesting season may be long in species residing in warm climates. The chestnut-banded sandplover's (C. pallidus) nesting season may last nearly all year. The killdeer in Puerto Rico breeds year-round.

Conservation status

Charadriidae includes one Critically Endangered species, two Endangered species, five that are Vulnerable, and an additional six that are Near Threatened. The only charadriid listed as Critically Endangered is the Javanese lapwing (Vanellus macropterus), which is probably extinct. It has not been seen since 1940. Reportedly always uncommon, it frequented steppe-like marshes and river deltas on the west side of the north coast and the east side of the south coast of Java.

The Endangered St. Helena plover (C. sanctaehelenae) is the only surviving endemic land bird on St. Helena. There are only about 325 individuals of this grassland species remaining. A decline in available habitat, a fluctuating invertebrate food supply, human disturbance, and predation of nests by cats and the common myna (Acridotheres tristis) contribute to its decline.

The Endangered shore plover is restricted to South East Island in the Chatham Islands. Only about 159 birds remain. Recovery efforts include a captive breeding program and translocation. One translocated pair raised two chicks on Motuora Island, but in general translocation has been unsuccessful due to failed dispersals to the mainland and predation by the owl morepork (Ninox novaeseelandiae). Loss of habitat, expansion of fur seal (Arctocephalus forsteri) colonies, storms, and predation by cats, brown rats (Rattus norvegicus), and brown skua (Cartharacta lonnbergi) contribute to endangerment. Current trends may require upgrading to Critically Endangered.

The New Zealand dotterel (C. obscurus), mountain plover (8,000–9,000 birds), piping plover (5,913), wrybill (3,000–5,000), and sociable lapwing (2,500–10,000) are listed as Vulnerable. The New Zealand dotterel has a limited distribution in New Zealand. The northern population nests along the coastline, and the southern population nests on bare hilltops, bogs, and grasslands of Stewart Island. Extensive predator protection is potentially allowing populations to stabilize, although population trends are unclear. The Stewart Island population increased from a low of 62 in 1991–92 to 150 in 1999. The entire population is estimated at around 1,600 birds. The Mountain plover nests in short-grass prairie, dry scrub, and fallow fields and is often associated with prairie dogs (Cynomys sp.). Falling population numbers are primarily attributable to hunting and decline in habitat. Piping plover populations are estimated at 5,913 and are improving apparently due to conservation efforts. Drought, inappropriate water management, dredging, human development, efforts to stabilize beaches, and beach disturbance are listed as primary causes of population decline.

The Magellenic plover, Madagascar plover (C. thoracicus), Malaysian plover (C. peronii), Javan plover (C. javanicus), hooded plover (C. rubricollis), and Mitchell's plover (Phegornis mitchelli) are Near Threatened.

Significance to humans

Black-bellied plovers and golden-plovers were game birds commonly sold in markets in North America in the late 1800s and probably continue to be eaten in some cultures. Conservation of species, such as the snowy and piping plovers that nest on scantily vegetated beaches, is often in conflict with human use of beaches for leisure activities.

Species accounts

Resources

Barnard, C. J., D. B. A. Thompson. Gulls and Plovers: The Ecology and Behaviour of Mixed-species Feeding Groups. New York: Columbia University Press, 1985.

Birdlife International. Threatened Birds of the World. Barcelona and Cambridge, UK: Lynx Edicions and BirdLife International, 2000.

Byrkjedal, I., and D. Thompson. Tundra Plovers: The Eurasian, Pacific and American Golden Plovers and Grey Plover. London: T & AD Poyser, 1998.

Falla, R. A., R. B. Sibson, and E. G. Turbott. The New Guide to the Birds of New Zealand. Auckland and London: Collins, 1981.

Gosler, A., ed. The Photographic Guide to Birds of the World. New York: Mallard Press, 1991.

Hayman, P., J. Marchant, and T. Prater. Shorebirds: An Identification Guide. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1986.

Johnsgard, Paul A. The Plovers, Sandpipers, and Snipes of the World. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1981.

Perrins, C. M., ed. Illustrated Encyclopedia of Birds: The Definitive Reference to Birds of the World. New York: Prentice Hall Editions, 1990.

Urban, E. K., C. H. Fry, and S. Keith, eds. The Birds of Africa, Vol. II. London: Academic Press, 1986.

Vaughan, R. Plovers. Lavenham: Terence Dalton Limited, 1980.

Bock, W. J. "A Generic Review of the Plovers (Charadriinae, Aves)." Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard Coll. 116, no. 2 (1958): 27–97.

Jackson, B. J. S., and J. A. Jackson. "Killdeer Charadrius vociferus." The Birds of North America no. 517 (2000).

Johnson, O. W., and P. G. Connors. "American Golden Plover Pluvialis dominica, Pacific Golden Plover Pluvialis fulva." The Birds of North America no. 210–202 (1996).

Knopf, F. "Mountain Plover Charadrius montanus." The Birds of North America no. 211 (1996).

Page, G. W., J. C. Warriner, and P. W. C. Paton. "Snowy Plover Charadrius alexandrinus." The Birds of North America no. 154 (1995).

Schardien, B. J., and J. A. Jackson. "Belly-soaking as Thermoregulatory Mechanism in Nesting Killdeer." Auk 96 (1979): 604–606.

[Article by: Bette J. S. Jackson, PhD]

The noun has one meaning:

Meaning #1: plover family
  Synonym: family Charadriidae

Charadriidae
Kentish Plover or Snowy Plover (Charadrius alexandrinus)
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Aves
Order:	Charadriiformes
Family:	Charadriidae Vigors, 1825
Genera
Vanellinae Erythrogonys Vanellus Charadriinae Pluvialis Charadrius Thinornis Elseyornis Peltohyas Anarhynchus Phegornis Oreopholus

Masked Lapwing (Vanellus miles novaehollandiae)

The bird family Charadriidae includes the plovers, dotterels, and lapwings, about 64 to 66 species in all. They are small to medium-sized birds with compact bodies, short, thick necks and long, usually pointed, wings. They range in size from the Collared Plover, at 26 grams and 14 cm (5.5 inches), to the Masked Lapwing, at 368 grams (13 oz) and 35 cm (14 inches).

They are distributed through open country worldwide, mostly in habitats near water, although there are some exceptions: the Inland Dotterel, for example, prefers stony ground in the deserts of central and western Australia^[1].

They hunt by sight, rather than by feel as longer-billed waders like snipe do. Foods eaten include insects, worms or other invertebrates depending on habitat, and are usually obtained by a run-and-pause technique, rather than the steady probing of some other wader groups. While breeding, they defend their territories with highly visible aerial displays^[1].

Most members of the family are known as plovers, lapwings or dotterels. These were rather vague terms which were not applied with any great consistency in the past. In general, larger species have often been called lapwings, smaller species plovers or dotterels and there are in fact two clear taxonomic sub-groups: most lapwings belong to the subfamily Vanellinae, most plovers and dotterels to Charadriinae.

The trend in recent years has been to rationalise the common names of the Charadriidae. For example, the large and very common Australian bird traditionally known as the ‘Spur-winged Plover’, is now the Masked Lapwing; the former ‘Sociable Plover’ is now the Sociable Lapwing.

References

1. ^ ^{a b} Harrison, Colin J.O. (1991). Forshaw, Joseph. ed. Encyclopaedia of Animals: Birds. London: Merehurst Press. pp. 105. ISBN 1-85391-186-0. 

External links

• Charadriidae videos on the Internet Bird Collection
• Charadriidae sounds on xeno-canto.org

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Charadriidae

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