Charles XII of Sweden

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Charles XII, King of Sweden (1682-1718), one of the most enigmatic figures in military history, about whom it is impossible to remain equivocal. Either he was a great leader and paragon of military virtue or a belligerent lunatic. Certainly, his reign saw the decline of Sweden from great power status to Baltic backwater, and this is in no small part due to the events of his dramatic and colourful career. His life invited commentary from the great writers of his age, most famously Voltaire, but Defoe, Fielding, and Dr Johnson were also moved to write about his exploits. Pope called him a Macedonian madman, comparing him to Alexander ‘the Great’ in his peregrinations. Paradoxically, although the bulk of Charles's life was spent at war, he was greatly influenced by the rational ideas of the Enlightenment.

His patrimony had been assured by his father Charles XI, who had put the administration of the Swedish kingdom on a sound footing and reduced the power of the Swedish nobility, giving the king near absolute power. The army was reorganized and the canton system (see also recruitment) of the indelningsverket introduced, where every province in Sweden and Finland would contribute one or more regular standing regiments named after the province itself. Every ten farmsteads were supposed to provide for a fully equipped soldier, including a horse if he was a cavalryman or dragoon. In time of war, the other farmers would work his land, which was granted by the state. This system was also used for the navy in the coastal areas, and placed less of a burden on the taxation system.

When the young Charles came to the throne in 1697 at the age of 14, Sweden's maritime and trade supremacy in the Baltic was beginning to come under pressure from Poland, Denmark, and Russia. They formed a triple alliance against him, hoping to take advantage of his youth and inexperience to despoil the Swedish empire. The ensuing Great Northern war lasted from 1700 until 1721, and was to dominate the rest of Charles's short life. The Swedes, led by the able Gen Rehnskjold with Charles understudying him, quickly forced King Frederick IV of Denmark to capitulate with a swift amphibious landing. They were again victorious against the Russians in November of 1700, destroying the entire army that was besieging Narva, in Estonia.

Now 20, Charles then led his army through Courland and Poland and into Saxony. He was by now ready to take full responsibility for operations, and his 12, 000 troops resoundingly beat 16, 000 Saxons at Kliszow in 1702. The following year at Pultusk he crushed another Saxon force, and in 1705 they were again routed at Punitz and Wszowa. Rehnskjold scored a further convincing victory at Franstadt in 1706. Poland fell into anarchy, the Saxons were brought to the negotiating table, and the Treaty of Altranstadt was duly signed. The pro-Swedish Stanislas Leszczynski was installed as king of Poland. The western powers began to court Charles, hoping he would intervene on one side or the other in the War of the Spanish Succession that was in full swing at the time.

Charles resolved instead to march east and deal with the Russian threat. All of Poland, Pomerania, and much of the Baltic coast lay at his feet, and he elected to pursue a war of aggression to expand into the Russian lands. On 1 January 1708, with an army of 40, 000 he marched on Moscow and the Russians fell back before him, hoping that time and the vast empty spaces would swallow him up. He caught up with them at Holowczyn, and soon realized that this was not the same rabble that had thrown down their arms at Narva eight years previously. Peter ‘the Great’ had reorganized his army along western lines and could boast an efficient and credible force that had retained the dogged and indomitable Russian spirit that has dismayed invaders time and again. Peter crushed a Cossack rebellion that threatened to provide Charles with much-needed allies, and the destruction of the Swedish supply column under Lewenhaupt at Ljesna in October 1708 seemed to settle matters, as it left the Swedes without resupply through an unusually bitter winter. Somehow, Charles and his army managed to hang on despite many deaths from cold and frostbite, and in the spring he marched on the Russian fortress of Poltava, which he believed contained large amounts of food and ammunition. At 03.00 on 27 June 1709, 22, 000 Swedes in four columns attacked 44, 000 Russians, mostly in entrenchments and led by the tsar in person. To make matters worse, Charles had been shot in the foot during a scouting mission just before the battle. The wound had became infected, and Charles was too ill to direct the battle in person. He passed command to Rehnskjold, who was unpopular with the other officers, and they deliberately or otherwise misunderstood his orders. The attack on the Russian redoubts, at first successful due to the sheer bravery of the Swedish troops, soon degenerated into a shambles.

Seven thousand Swedes died fighting and 2, 500 were captured at Poltava. The 10, 000 remaining under Lewenhaupt were surrounded and surrendered at Perevolotjna on the river Dnjestr on 1 July 1709. The prisoners were marched off to the mines of the Urals, put to work building St Petersburg, or sent to Siberia. Few, if any, returned. Charles himself was spirited away on a stretcher to evade capture, and took refuge with 1, 000 loyal but ragged and weary followers with Russia's ancient enemies, the Ottoman Turks. He remained in a specially constructed camp at Bender in Bessarabia for five years, desperately trying to gather forces for a renewed invasion of Russia. He encouraged the Turks to declare war on Russia in 1710, and the more mobile Turkish army soon surrounded the Russians at Pruth. However, inexplicably the Porte made peace shortly afterwards. Tiring of their troublesome guest they besieged his camp in 1713 and he eventually negotiated his return to Sweden where, after crossing hostile territory disguised as one ‘Captain Frisk’, he arrived in November 1714. The war was going badly for Sweden and Charles now faced an alliance of Denmark, Saxony, and Russia, who had been joined by Hanover and Prussia. Livonia, Estonia, and the lands around the Gulf of Finland were in Russian hands, while the other allies had helped themselves to the Swedish lands in Germany. Stralsund and Vor-Pommern had fallen to the Brandenburgers.

Once back in Sweden, Charles immediately put into effect the many reforms of army and state he had thought through during his long isolation in the camp at Bender, and set about organizing the defence of Sweden. He supported the Swedish engineer Carl Cronstedt, who redesigned the Swedish artillery, making the guns more mobile and capable of rapid fire. A form of conscription was introduced, tactical formations were made more flexible, and inter-arm co-operation was developed further. Contemporaries marvelled at the skill and professionalism of the Swedish army. This new army then took the field in 1717 against Norway, where Charles was shot in the head and killed at the siege of Frederiksten. There has been some speculation that Charles was assassinated, but from forensic examination of his skull it is fairly certain that an enemy sentinel caught sight of his head peering over the parapet and managed a lucky hit. The Norwegian campaign ended in fiasco, the army collapsed, and 3, 000 men were lost in a gruelling retreat over the mountains of Jämtland.

Charles's reputation as a great commander rests on his capabilities as an aggressive and courageous tactical leader, but sadly this was not enough. His utter contempt for his enemies, and almost complete lack of strategic and diplomatic subtlety was to cost Sweden dearly. The war ended with the Treaty of Nystad in 1721, where Sweden lost Estonia, Ingria, and Livonia. The Swedish economy was shattered, and Russia had gained access to the Baltic and a window on the West.

Bibliography

• Englund, Peter, Poltava (Stockholm, 1988)

— Toby McLeod

Charles XII (1682-1718) was king of Sweden from 1697 to 1718. A famous warrior king, he led his country during the Northern War.

The son of Charles XI and Ulrica Leonora, daughter of Frederick III of Denmark, Charles XII was born on June 17, 1682. He was carefully nurtured by his parents because his four younger brothers died as infants. Charles XI, conscious of his own neglected education, selected the best available teachers for the boy's instruction; the future king was well grounded in theology, military science, the classics, languages, mathematics, and history. The father himself had a profound influence on the son. Young Charles rode and hunted with his father on expeditions that tested his endurance. He could ride before he was 4 and constantly engaged in mock battles with his peers and his teachers. Not only was he hardened to fatigue and exposure, but he was also made familiar with the details of administration.

The young prince was like his father in many ways. He had the same untiring energy, the same stubborn will. He was reserved and like his father distrusted all things French. He was also impatient with the niceties of diplomacy and preferred direct talk and action to courtly innuendoes. From his mother Charles received a personal gentleness which he combined with unflinching devotion to duty. His father's hopes that the boy would be eased into the duties of kingship were thwarted on April 5, 1697, by Charles XI's death. His father's plans that Charles should be subject to a regency during which he could gain experience also were not realized. Rumors of internal troubles between the six regents and the Estates caused the latter to request that although underage Charles assume full responsibility. Before the end of the year he was crowned, and the adolescent prematurely became the man.

Soon Charles's abilities would be put to the test. The early days of the reign saw him warding off many marriage offers, but his sister Hedvig Sophia married Duke Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp. He indulged in exciting escapades and committed his country by alliance to England and the Netherlands, supporting their stand on the Spanish succession for a guarantee of Sweden's possessions in the Baltic and the integrity of Holstein-Gottorp.

Northern War

Meanwhile Charles's enemies were forging alliances against him. By the close of the century a Livonian discontent, Joann Reinhold Patkul, had persuaded Frederick IV of Denmark, Augustus II of Poland-Saxony, and Peter the Great of Russia to make a joint attack on Sweden to despoil the young ruler of much of his inheritance. Charles XII turned from sham battles and mock heroics to real war. He had tried to avoid battle, but once his enemies began it, he resolved to punish them. To Charles the defense of his realm was a mixture of honor, duty, and patriotism.

Leaving his garrisons in Finland, the Baltic Provinces, and parts of Swedish Germany to care for themselves, Charles turned first against Denmark. While a combined Anglo-Dutch fleet kept the Danish navy bottled up in Copenhagen, on July 24, 1700, Charles landed his troops on Zeeland. The road to Copenhagen lay open, and shortly that city was besieged from the sea and land. Under pressure from his allies Charles signed a treaty at Travendal which was a return to the status quo.

Poland's turn was next. In September, Charles crossed over to Livonia, but Augustus had already withdrawn. Consequently Charles deceided to relieve Narva, which was under attack by the troops of the Czar. Peter enjoyed great numerical superiority but fled the area before the battle was engaged. It was well he did, because on Nov. 19, 1700, Charles crushed the Russian army, taking so many prisoners he was forced to disarm them and send them home. He should have taken advantage of this victory and brought Russia completely to terms, but he turned once more against Augustus. In 1701 Swedish troops crossed the Dvina in full view of the enemy, inflicted a severe defeat on Augustus's forces, and cleared Livonia of Polish soldiers. Soon Charles occupied Courland. In 1702 he invaded Poland proper and occupied Warsaw, winning a decisive victory at Kliszow. A victory at Thorn in 1703 made Augustus's position untenable, and in September of the next year Charles placed Stanislaus Leszczynski on the Polish throne. He cleared the marshes around Pripetz of Russian auxiliaries and marched through Poland and Silesia into Saxony, where in September 1707 at Altranstädt Augustus was forced to abandon both his Polish throne and his coalition with Russia.

His Defeat

The next to be chastened was Peter, who had been rebuilding his forces since Narva. He also had been whittling at Swedish possessions in Finland and the Baltic Provinces while committing enough troops to Poland to gain time. Charles's advance, at first crowned with success, ran into trouble because of long supply lines and Russia's policy. The King himself was wounded, and while incapacitated he was badly defeated at Poltava on June 28, 1709. Even worse, his cavalry surrendered on July 1 at Perevolotjna. The Swedish king went into Turkey, where through diplomacy he might have been successful except that Peter was able to buy off Russia's Turkish adversaries. Meanwhile the jackal kings of Poland and Denmark rejoined the ranks of Sweden's enemies. Not to be outdone at the carcass, the electors of Brandenburg and Prussia also became Sweden's enemies.

Charles XII and his country, however, were not dead. Despairing of Turkish help, Charles, after a dangerous ride through enemy territory from Adrianople, arrived on Nov. 10, 1714, at Stralsund, his last important garrison in Germany. When that fell a year later, Charles, after thrilling adventures crossing the Baltic in a small boat, came home to Sweden. There he strengthened his defenses and in two campaigns attacked Norway. During the second attack, on Dec. 11, 1718, he was shot while besieging the Dano-Norwegian fortress of Fredriksten. His skull was pierced, and he died immediately. The Northern War was ended during the reign of his successor, his sister Ulrica Leonora.

His Character

Myths about Charles XII are legion. Perhaps a few facts should be noted. He was not a barbarian but enjoyed social gatherings when he had time for them. He had a real interest and flair for design and urban planning. His dress, though plain, was expensive. He did not neglect civil administration. Rather he was good at it. Yet military survival had to be his main objective. The Spartan life he affected fast to encourage his troops. He was not a homosexual and was not killed by one of his own men. He could be charming but knew that in diplomacy charm without strength was relatively useless. His firmness - often called stubbornness - was Sweden's greatest as set, and his death contributed appreciably to Sweden's denouement.

Charless XII, however, must bear some responsibility for the loss of Sweden's status as a great power. Still he did not begin a single conflict, and any court of international law must consider his stand just, though unrealistic. The aspiration of fellow monarchs rather than the King's obduracy was Sweden's curse. He did not ruin his country internally or economically. His use of artillery, his tactical innovations, and his strategy when placed in their European context show that he ranks high as a military leader. His plans for peace which never could materialize indicate he would have been an above-average ruler. His death rather than his actions was a significant cause of Sweden's decline.

Further Reading

Ragnhild M. Hatton, Charles XII of Sweden (1968), is the best study in any language. A dated but helpful work is R. Nisbet Bain, Charles XII and the Collapse of the Swedish Empire (1895; repr. 1969). Charles's diplomacy is considered in John Joseph Murray, George I, the Baltic and the Whig Split of 1717: A Study in Diplomacy and Propaganda (1969). A lively discussion of Charles's invasion of Russia is in Leonard Cooper, Many Roads to Moscow: Three Historic Invasions (1968).

Additional Sources

Bain, R. Nisbet (Robert Nisbet), Charles XI, New York: AMS Press, 1980.

Hatton, Ragnhild Marie, Charles XII, London: Historical Association, 1974.

Voltaire, Lion of the North, Charles XII of Sweden, Rutherford N.J.: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press; London: Associated University Presses, 1981.

Charles XII (Sweden) (1682–1718; ruled 1697–1718), king of Sweden. The son of Charles XI of Sweden and Ulrika Eleonora of Denmark, Charles was raised in the context of Sweden's transition to absolutism. From a distinguished group of tutors he learned Latin, modern languages, history, mathematics, religion, military techniques, and Swedish politics and law. He was deeply religious, intense, tireless, self-assured, uncompromising, secretive, and fully committed to the ideas of Sweden's imperial greatness and divine right absolutism. Not yet fifteen when he his father died, he was recognized as ruling king by the parliament a few months later and wasted no time making it clear that Charles XI's absolutist system would continue. Throughout his reign he was in charge, aided by a handful of favorites including Carl Piper, Thomas Polus, and Georg H. von Görtz.

The first few years of Charles's reign were remarkable for their levity. The teenaged king enjoyed culture, parties, food, drink, and hunting—and often mixed all of these in flights of decadence. The fun ended abruptly in 1700, when Frederick IV of Denmark, Augustus II the Strong of Poland-Saxony, and Peter the Great of Russia attacked Sweden's Baltic holdings from three directions. The Great Northern War (1700–1721) consumed the rest of Charles XII's life. It became his obsession, and it was in his conduct of this war that Charles's place in history was forged.

The coalition Sweden faced appeared insurmountable, but the nature of early modern alliances and warfare worked in Charles's favor. He did not have to defeat the combined forces of his enemies. He could deal with them individually. From 1700 to 1708, he was successful, and it was then that he earned a reputation for daring, command skills, and near invincibility. The Danes were forced out of the war in August 1700 (Treaty of Traventhal). The Russians lost the Battle of Narva in November 1700, but were not pursued or truly defeated. Charles's attention turned to Poland, then led by Augustus II the Strong of Saxony, where a series of campaigns and political intrigues spanning six years finally led to peace, concluded at Altranstädt in 1706.

In 1707, Charles launched a campaign against Russia. His plans to strike at Moscow were undone by the Russians' harassing tactics, failure of reinforcements to reach him, dwindling supplies, and the severe winter of 1708–1709. Charles was forced to turn south into the Ukraine. On 28 June 1709, he attacked the Russians at Poltava. The odds were against him. The Russians were well prepared, and the Swedes were outnumbered in every way. Charles, who had been wounded a few days earlier, could not direct the battle effectively, and he underestimated his enemy. Suffering horrible losses, the Swedes were forced to retreat. Two days later what was left of the army and its hangers-on surrendered at Perevolotjna, while Charles and a small body of supporters fled into the Ottoman Empire.

For over five years the war and affairs of state were conducted from exile, first at Bender in Bessarabia and then from Demotika west of Constantinople. Charles was a guest and then a prisoner of the Turks. He was allowed to leave in late 1714, going first to Stralsund and returning to Sweden a year later. During his absence, the coalition reformed and was joined by Brandenburg and Hanover. The Baltic provinces fell; Finland and the German territories were occupied. Charles refused to sue for peace and ordered new armies and new campaigns. The human and material costs to Sweden were enormous. A 1716 campaign against Norway failed. A new campaign began in 1718, when Fredriksten (Fredrikshald) fortress on the Norwegian-Swedish border was besieged and central Norway attacked. On the night of 30 November 1718, while inspecting the works, Charles was shot in the head and died instantly. Who killed him has remained a question ever since. The Norwegian forces were firing from the fortress and could have hit the king. Many have preferred the murder option and argued that he was shot by someone in his own party. Simple war-weariness could have been the motive, or it could have been part of a conspiracy to assure the succession of his sister, Ulrika Eleonora, and her husband Fredrik. In this ongoing debate serious historical research and folk legends have often merged. Whatever the truth, Sweden's age of empire died with Charles. A set of peace treaties ended the war and stripped Sweden of most of its empire. A peaceful change of constitution ended absolutism.

Bibliography

Berg, Olof Patrik. Carl XII och enväldet. Göteborg, 2002.

Englund, Peter. Poltava. Berättelsen om en armés undergång. Stockholm, 1988.

Ericsson, Peter. Stora nordiska kriget förklarat: Karl XII och det ideologiska tilltalet. Uppsala, 2002. Contains a brief summary in English.

Hatton R. M. Charles XII of Sweden. New York, 1969.

Liljegren, Bengt. Karl XII: en biografi. Lund, 2000.

Roberts, Michael. "The Dubious Hand: The History of a Controversy." In From Oxenstierna to Charles XII: Four Studies. Cambridge, U.K., and New York, 1991.

Voltaire. The History of Charles XII, King of Sweden. Translated by Antonia White. London, 1976.

—BYRON J. NORDSTROM

Charles XII
King of Sweden
Charles XII in military uniform, David von Krafft (1706)
Reign	5 April 1697 – 30 November 1718
Coronation	14 December 1697
Predecessor	Charles XI
Successor	Ulrika Eleonora
Full name
Carolus XII
Father	Charles XI
Mother	Ulrike Eleonora of Denmark
Born	17 June 1682 Tre Kronor (castle), Sweden
Died	30 November 1718 (aged 36) Fredrikshald, Norway
Burial	26 February 1719 Riddarholmen Church, Stockholm

Charles XII Swedish: Karl XII (Latinized to Carolus Rex "King Charles", Turkish Demirbaş Şarl "Charles the Habitué") (17 June 1682 – 30 November 1718) was the King of Sweden from 1697 to 1718.

Charles was the only surviving son of King Charles XI of Sweden and Ulrika Eleonora the Elder, and he assumed the crown at the age of fifteen, at the death of his father.

He left the country three years later to embark on a series of battles overseas. These battles were part of the Great Northern War and many of them were fought against Russia, Saxony and Denmark-Norway. These respective nations joined in a coalition to attack Sweden, starting what would later be known as the Great Northern War.

Charles XII was a skilled military leader and tactician. However, although he was also skilled as a politician, he was reluctant in making peace. Charles is quoted by Voltaire as saying upon the outbreak of the Great Northern War, "I have resolved never to start an unjust war but never to end a legitimate one except by defeating my enemies." Although Sweden achieved several large scale military successes early on, and won the most battles, the Great Northern War eventually ended in Sweden's defeat and the end of the Swedish Empire.

The fact that Charles was crowned as Charles XII does not mean that he was the 12th king in the line carrying the name of Charles. The Swedish kings Erik XIV (1560–1568) and Charles IX (1604–1611) took their numbers after studying a highly mythological History of Sweden. He was more likely the 6th King Charles.^[1] This numbering tradition continues, with the present king of Sweden being Carl XVI Gustaf.

Contents 1 Royal title 2 Early campaigns 3 Russian resurgence 4 Exile in the Ottoman Empire 5 Death 6 Legacy 7 Scientific contributions 8 Ancestors 9 In popular culture 10 References 11 External links

Royal title

Charles, like all kings, was styled by a royal title, which collected all his titles into one single phrase. This was:

We Charles, by the Grace of God King of Sweden, the Goths and the Vends, Grand Duke of Finland, Duke of Estonia and Karelia, Lord of Ingria, Duke of Bremen, Verden and Pommerania, Prince of Rügen and Lord of Wismar, and also Count Palatine by the Rhine, Duke of Bavaria, Count of Zweibrücken-Kleeburg, as well as Duke of Jülich, Cleve and Berg, Count of Waldenz, Spanheim and Ravensberg and Lord of Ravenstein.

Early campaigns

Part of the Monument to Charles XII in Stockholm, with Charles pointing towards Russia

In 1700, Denmark-Norway, Saxony, and Russia united in an alliance against Sweden, using the perceived opportunity as Sweden was ruled by the young and inexperienced King. Early that year, all three countries declared war against Sweden. Charles had to deal with these threats one by one.

Charles's first campaign was against Denmark-Norway, ruled by his cousin Frederick IV of Denmark, which threatened a Swedish ally, Charles' brother-in-law Frederick IV of Holstein-Gottorp. For this campaign Charles secured the support of England and the Netherlands, both maritime powers concerned about Denmark's threats to close the Sound. Leading a force of 8,000 and 43 ships in an invasion of Zealand, Charles rapidly compelled the Danes to submit to the Peace of Travendal in August 1700, which indemnified Holstein.

Having defeated Denmark-Norway, King Charles turned his attention upon the two other powerful neighbors, King August II of Poland (cousin to both Charles XII and Frederick IV of Denmark-Norway) and Peter the Great of Russia, who also had entered the war against him.

Russia had opened their part of the war by invading the Swedish-held territories of Livonia and Estonia. Charles countered this by attacking the Russian besiegers at the Battle of Narva. The Swedish army of ten thousand men was outnumbered four to one by the Russians. Charles attacked under cover of a blizzard, effectively split the Russian army in two and won the battle. Many of Peter's troops that fled the battlefield drowned in the Narva River, and the total number of Russian fatalities reached about 17,000 at the end of the battle, while the Swedish troop lost 667 men.

Charles did not pursue the Russian army. Instead, he then turned against Poland-Lithuania, which was formally neutral at this point, thereby disregarding Polish negotiation proposals supported by the Swedish parliament. Charles defeated the Polish king Augustus II and his Saxon allies at the Battle of Kliszow in 1702 and captured many cities of the Commonwealth. After the deposition of the king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Charles XII put Stanisław Leszczyński on the throne.

Russian resurgence

While Charles won several battles in the Commonwealth, the Russian Tsar Peter the Great embarked on a military reform plan that improved the Russian army. Russian forces managed to retake Ingria and established a new city Saint Petersburg there. This prompted Charles to attack the Russian heartland with an assault on Moscow, allying himself with Ivan Mazepa, Hetman of the Ukrainian Cossacks. The size of the invading Swedish army altogether was 77,400 men. Charles left the homeland, with a defense of approximately 28,800 men.

Charles XII and Mazepa at the Dnieper River after Poltava by Gustaf Cederström.

Peter the Great defeated Swedish forces near the Baltic coast before Charles could combine his forces, and Charles' Polish ally, Stanisław Leszczyński, was facing internal problems of his own. Charles expected the support of a massive Cossack rebellion led by Mazepa in Ukraine but the Russians destroyed the rebel army before they could aid the Swedish troops. The harsh climate took its toll as well, as Charles marched his troops through Ukraine.

Carolus - the autograph of the king.

By the time of the decisive Battle of Poltava, Charles had been wounded, one-third of his infantry was dead, and his supply train was destroyed. The king was incapacitated by a coma resulting from his injuries and was unable to lead the Swedish forces. Charles had 14,000 men while Peter had 45,000. The battle was a disaster, and the king fled with a small entourage south to the Ottoman Empire, where he set up camp at Bender with about 1,000 men who were called Caroleans ("Karoliner" in Swedish). The Swedish defeat at Poltava is considered by some historians to be the point where the downfall of the Swedish Empire started and the Russian Empire started to rise.

Exile in the Ottoman Empire

The Turks initially welcomed the Swedish king, who managed to incite a war between the Ottomans and the Russians. His expenses during his long stay in the Ottoman Empire were covered from the Ottoman state budget, as part of the fixed assets (Demirbaş in Turkish), hence his nickname Demirbaş Şarl (Fixed Asset Charles) in Turkey. Demirbaş, the Turkish word for fixed asset, is literally ironhead (demir = iron, baş = head), which is the reason why this nickname has often been translated as Ironhead Charles.

However, the sultan Ahmed III's subjects in the empire eventually got tired of Charles' scheming and they besieged the Topkapi Palace and this uprising was called "kalabalik" (Crowd) which after this event found a place in Swedish lexicon as "kalabalik" referring to uprising. The Janissaries did not shoot Charles during the skirmish at Bender, but captured him and put him under house-arrest in Constantinople. During his imprisonment the King played chess and studied the Turkish navy.

Meanwhile, Russia and Poland regained and expanded their territories. Great Britain, an ally of Sweden, defected from its alliance obligations while Prussia attacked Swedish holdings in Germany. Russia seized Finland and Augustus II regained the Polish throne.

Death

The funeral transport of Charles XII. A romanticized painting by Gustaf Cederström, 1884

Charles succeeded in leaving his imprisonment in Constantinople and returned to Swedish Pomerania on horseback, riding across Europe in just fifteen days. His efforts to reestablish the Swedish empire failed. He had two Turkish-style warships built in Sweden, the Yildirim ("The Lightning") and the Yaramaz or Jarramas ("The Rogue"). Charles's last efforts to reinstate Sweden as an empire were to invade Norway. He first invaded Norway in 1716 with a combined force of 7,000 men, occupied the capital Christiania, today Oslo, and laid siege to the Akershus fortress. However, the Norwegian forces were intact, and forced a retreat from the capital at 29 April after inflicting significant losses of men and material. Mid-May following the retreat from Christiania, Charles invaded the border town Fredrikshald, now Halden, in an attempt to take the fortress of Fredriksten. The Swedes came under heavy bombardment from the fortress and was forced to flee from Fredrikshald when the town was set on fire. Swedish casualties in Fredrikshald were estimated to 500. During the siege in Fredrikshald the Swedish supply fleet was defeated by Tordenskjold at the Battle of Dynekilen^[2].

In 1718 Charles once more invaded Norway. The main force consisting of 40,000 men laid siege to the strong fortress of Fredriksten, overlooking the border town of Fredrikshald. While inspecting trenches close to the perimeter of the fortress on 11 December (30 November Old Style), 1718, Charles was killed by a projectile. The shot penetrated the left side of his skull and exited out of the right, destroying most of his brain in the process. The invasion was abandoned, and Charles' body was brought across the border. Another army corps under Carl Gustaf Armfeldt marched against Trondheim with 10,000 men, but had to make a retreat, during which many of the 5,800 remaining men perished in a severe winter storm.

From the autopsy of Charles XII in 1916^[3]

Carl XII's sarcophagus in Stockholm

The exact circumstances around Charles' death are unclear. The most likely theory is that he was hit by a bullet from a Norwegian musket, but he may also have been killed by a grapeshot bullet from a cannon. Another theory is that he was killed by a uniform button re-made into a bullet. This theory is coupled with speculation that he was shot from the Swedish side (due to the great force of entry by the bullet), making his death an assassination, because allegedly he was unpopular in Sweden at the time. A theory is that the murder was an act of conspiracy made by his sister Ulrika Eleonora's husband Fredrik who was crowned Fredrik I. It is believed that the murder was committed by officer who confessed before he died in a fever.

There are today two major theories about whom and what killed the king. A study was presented in 2005 by Peter From, where he argued that the mortal bullet was fired by a Norwegian musket at close range.^{[citation needed]} The theory has gained support by historian Dick Harrison. Another theory by Svante Ståhl proposes that Charles was shot by a grapeshot bullet made of forged iron from a Norwegian cannon. Such ammunition of the correct calibre has been proved to have been used by the Norwegians at the time of the siege.^{[citation needed]} This would explain the absence of lead in Charles' mortal head wound. This study is embraced among others by historian Peter Englund.

Charles was succeeded to the Swedish throne by his sister, Ulrika Eleonora. As Palatinate-Zweibrücken required a male heir, Charles was succeeded as ruler there by his cousin Gustav Leopold. Georg Heinrich von Görtz, Charles' minister, was beheaded in 1719.

Legacy

Exceptional for abstaining from alcohol and women, he felt most comfortable during warfare. Contemporaries report of his seemingly inhuman tolerance for pain and his utter lack of emotion. The king brought Sweden to its pinnacle of prestige and power through his brilliant campaigning and victories, although the Great Northern War eventually ended in Sweden's defeat and end of the Swedish Empire.

Scientific contributions

Apart from being a monarch, the King's interests included mathematics, and anything that would be beneficial to his warlike purposes. He is attributed as having invented an octal numeral system, which he considered more suitable for war purposes because all the boxes used for materials such as gunpowder were cubic. According to a report by contemporary scientist Emanuel Swedenborg, the King had sketched down a model of his thought on a piece of paper and handed it to him at their meeting in Lund in 1716. The paper was reportedly still in existence a hundred years later, but has since been lost. Several historians of science suspect that either the multi-talented Emanuel Swedenborg or the brilliant inventor Christopher Polhem – also present at the meeting in Lund – may have been the true inventor behind this feat, or at least a main contributor.

Ancestors

v • d • e Ancestors of Charles XII of Sweden

16. John I, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken               8. John Casimir, Count Palatine of Zweibrücken-Kleeburg                       17. Magdalene of Jülich-Cleves-Berg               4. Charles X Gustav of Sweden                             18. Charles IX of Sweden               9. Catharina of Sweden                       19. Anna Marie of Palatinate-Simmern               2. Charles XI of Sweden                                   20. John Adolf, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp               10. Frederick III, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp                       21. Augusta of Denmark               5. Hedvig Eleonora of Holstein-Gottorp                             22. John George I, Elector of Saxony               11. Marie Elisabeth of Saxony                       23. Magdalene Sibylle of Prussia               1. Charles XII of Sweden                                         24. Frederick II of Denmark               12. Christian IV of Denmark                       25. Sophie of Mecklenburg-Güstrow               6. Frederick III of Denmark                             26. Joachim Frederick, Elector of Brandenburg               13. Anne Catherine of Brandenburg                       27. Catherine of Brandenburg-Küstrin               3. Ulrike Eleonora of Denmark                                   28. William, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg               14. George, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg                       29. Dorothea of Denmark               7. Sophie Amalie of Brunswick-Lüneburg                             30. Louis V, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt               15. Anne Eleonore of Hesse-Darmstadt                       31. Magdalena von Brandenburg

In popular culture

A character based on Charles XII plays a major role in The Age of Unreason, a series of four alternate history novels written by American science fiction and fantasy author Gregory Keyes.

There is a pub in Heslington village near to the Univeristy of York in England called Charles XII which is named in honour of the King.

References

This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please improve this article by introducing more precise citations where appropriate. (July 2007)

1. ^ Article Karl in Nordisk familjebok
2. ^ Charles XII's march on Norway - national library
3. ^ Associated Press (16 September 1917). "A ROYAL AUTOPSY DELAYED 200 YEARS". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9E02E2DC103AE433A25755C1A96F9C946696D6CF. Retrieved 20 November 2008. 

Ragnhild Hatton, Charles XII. London, 1968.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Charles XII of Sweden

• Charles XII and his aftermath
• The Great Northern War and Charles XII
• Charles XII and his Life and Death (Swedish)
• http://www.islandnet.com/~kpolsson/swedhis/swed1700.htm
• BBC News item: Who killed Sweden's Warrior King?

Karl XII House of Palatinate-Zweibrücken Cadet branch of the House of Wittelsbach Born: 17 June 1682 Died: 30 November 1718
Regnal titles
Preceded by Karl XI	King of Sweden 1697–1718	Succeeded by Ulrika Eleonora as Queen regnant of Sweden
Preceded by Karl XI as Duke of Bremen and Prince of Verden	Duke of Bremen and Prince of Verden 1697–1718 (dispossessed by Danish occupation since 1712)	Succeeded by Ulrika Eleonora as Duchess regnant of Bremen and Princess regnant of Verden

v • d • e Monarchs of Sweden Munsö c.970–c.1060 Eric the Victorious / Olof Björnsson · Olof Skötkonung · Anund Jacob · Emund the Old Stenkil c.1060–c.1130 1160–1161 Stenkil (Stænkil) · Eric Stenkilsson / Eric the Pagan · Halsten · Anund Gårdske · Håkan the Red · Halsten / Inge the Elder · Blot-Sweyn · Eric of Good Harvests · Inge the Elder · Philip Halstensson / Inge the Younger · Ragnvald Knaphövde · Magnus the Strong · Houses of Sverker and Eric · Magnus Henriksen Sverker · Eric c.1130–1250 Sverker the Elder · Eric the Saint · Magnus Henriksen · Charles Sverkersson · Kol / Boleslas · Canute I · Sverker the Younger · Eric Canutesson · John Sverkersson · Eric Ericsson · Canute II 1 · Eric Ericsson Bjelbo 1250–1364 Valdemar Birgersson · Magnus Ladulås · Birger Magnusson · Mats Kettilmundsson 2 · Magnus Ericsson3 · Eric Magnusson · Magnus Ericsson / Haakon Magnusson3 Mecklenburg 1364–1389 Albrekt (Albert) Kalmar Union Italics indicate regents 1389–1523 Margaret I of Denmark4 / Eric of Pomerania4 · Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson · Eric of Pomerania4 · Charles Canutesson · Eric of Pomerania4 · Charles Canutesson · Christopher of Bavaria4 · Bengt Jönsson (Oxenstierna) / Nils Jönsson (Oxenstierna) · Charles Canutesson3 · Jöns Bengtsson Oxenstierna / Erik Axelsson Tott · Christian I4 · Kettil Karlsson (Vasa) · Charles Canutesson · Kettil Karlsson (Vasa) · Jöns Bengtsson Oxenstierna · Erik Axelsson Tott · Charles Canutesson · Sten Sture the Elder · John II4 · Sten Sture the Elder · Svante Nilsson · Eric Trolle · Sten Sture the Younger · Christian II4 · Gustaf Eriksson (Vasa) Vasa 1523–1654 Gustav I · Eric XIV · John III · Sigismund5 · Charles IX · Gustav II Adolf · Christina Palatinate- Zweibrücken Hesse-Kassel 1654–1751 Charles X Gustav · Charles XI · Charles XII · Ulrika Eleonora · Frederick I Holstein-Gottorp 1751–1818 Adolf Frederick · Gustav III · Gustav IV Adolf · Charles XIII3 Bernadotte since 1818 Charles XIV John3 · Oscar I3 · Charles XV3 · Oscar II3 · Gustaf V · Gustaf VI Adolf · Carl XVI Gustaf 1 Lineage uncertain.  2 Regent.  3 Also Norwegian monarch.  4 Also Norwegian and Danish monarch.  5 Also king of Poland.

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