chauvinism

Chauvinism, in its original and primary meaning, is an exaggerated, bellicose patriotism and a belief in national superiority and glory.^[1] It is an eponym of a possibly fictional French soldier Nicolas Chauvin who was credited with many superhuman feats in the Napoleonic wars.

By extension, it has come to include an extreme and unreasoning partisanship on behalf of any group to which one belongs, especially when the partisanship includes malice and hatred towards rival groups. Jingoism is the British parallel form of this French word, when referring to nation.^[1]

A contemporary use of the term in English is in the phrase male chauvinism.^[2] Because "chauvinism" is most often heard in this context, it is often mistakenly believed to refer exclusively to "male chauvinism" such as anti-feminism and sexism.

Chauvinism as nationalism

In "Imperialism, Nationalism, Chauvinism", in The Review of Politics 7.4, (October 1945), p. 457, Hannah Arendt, the political theorist, describes the concept:

Chauvinism is an almost natural product of the national concept in so far as it springs directly from the old idea of the "national mission." ... [A] nation's mission might be interpreted precisely as bringing its light to other, less fortunate peoples that, for whatever reason, have miraculously been left by history without a national mission. As long as this concept did not develop into the ideology of chauvinism and remained in the rather vague realm of national or even nationalistic pride, it frequently resulted in a high sense of responsibility for the welfare of backward people.

Technical Chauvinism has been used for those examples where inventors of a particular nationality have been idolised, one case being that of the ship's propeller. It had no sole inventor, but claims have been made for the Swede John Ericsson and the Czeck Josef Ressel. The latter even has a national monument to him.

Male chauvinism

As sexism

Male chauvinism is a term used to describe the belief that men are superior to women. It is often used interchangeably with "sexism" and is closely associated with misogyny and perceptions of women as inferior to men, especially intellectually. The unqualified term "chauvinism" is far more likely to refer to a male chauvinism than female chauvinism in the context of chauvinism as sexism.

Male chauvinism has been defined as a “blind allegiance and simple minded devotion to one’s maleness that is mixed with open or disguised belligerence toward women. It is also usually associated with an unconscious magical ritual to ward off anxiety engendered by these same women.” ^[3]

Male chauvinism was apparent long before the feminist movement, and studies indicate that it has been as long-believed and practiced as racism and religious persecution . ^{[4] [5]}

Male chauvinism in the workplace

The balance of the workforce in America changed during World War II through the dramatic rise of women’s participation as men left their positions to enlist in the military and fight in the war. After the war ended and men returned home to find jobs in the workplace, male chauvinism was on the rise. Previously, men had been the main source of labor, and they expected to come back to their previous employment, but women had stepped into many of their positions to fill the void. ^[6]

As they integrated back into the workforce, men returned to predominantly holding positions of power, and women worked as their secretaries, usually typing dictations and answering telephone calls. This division of labor was understood and expected, and women typically felt unable to challenge their position or male superiors. ^{[7] [8]} There is less chauvinism seen in the general modern workplace, though it is still found in more personal relationships within businesses.

Male chauvinism in the home

Michael Korda, author of Male Chauvinism! How It Works, compared chauvinistic husbands to the hedgehog from a well-known Russian fable, The Hedgehog and the Fox; they have one way of thinking, and it is so engrained that they cannot change it. Chauvinistic men see marriage as a particular type of relationship, with defined responsibilities for each spouse, where women are expected to stay home to cook, clean, and raise children. Men are expected to work outside of the home, and are permitted to have whatever job they choose. Chauvinistic men believe “that women are to be bullied, or humored, or charmed, or ignored.” ^[9] Male chauvinism is seen in the home in different cultures. It is a classical concept of the Jewish religious tradition, and the Christian faith has long been criticized for the general superiority complex of males. Muslim tradition expects their women to be subservient and it is their societal norm for women to reveal little, if any of their face. ^[10]

An observational study of diabetics and their spouses also found that if the husband was diabetic, the wife tended to support his particular dietary needs while the converse was true for marriages where the wife was diabetic. In the latter case, husbands were often unsupportive and preferred to eat meals to their own taste. ^[11]

Causes of male chauvinism

Ann Turkel believes that chauvinistic attitudes of men stem from the early mother-child relationship, and that the concept of breast envy in men is crucial to understanding the connection between envy and devaluation, and thus the root of chauvinistic attitudes in men. Devaluation is a defense mechanism for envy. ^[12]

Chauvinism is also seen as an influential factor in some psychological personality tests, such as the TAT. Through cross-examinations, the TAT exhibits a tendency toward chauvinistic stimuli for its questions and has the “potential for unfavorable clinical evaluation” for women. ^[13]

An often cited study done in 1976 by Sherwyn Woods, Some Dynamics of Male Chauvinism, attempts to find the underlying causes of "male chauvinism."

Male chauvinism was studied in the psychoanalytic therapy of 11 men. It refers to the maintenance of fixed beliefs and attitudes of male superiority, associated with overt or covert depreciation of women. Challenging chauvinist attitudes often results in anxiety or other symptoms. It is frequently not investigated in psychotherapy because it is ego-syntonic, parallels cultural attitudes, and because therapists often share similar bias or neurotic conflict. Male chauvinism was found to represent an attempt to ward off anxiety and shame arising from one or more of four prime sources: unresolved infantile strivings and regressive wishes, hostile envy of women, oedipal anxiety, and power and dependency conflicts related to masculine self-esteem. Mothers were more important than fathers in the development of male chauvinism, and resolution was sometimes associated with decompensation in wives.^[14]

Female chauvinism

Female chauvinism is a term used to describe the symmetrical attitude that women are superior to men. The term female chauvinism has been adopted by critics of some types or aspects of feminism; second-wave feminist Betty Friedan is a notable example.^[15] Ariel Levy used the term in similar, but opposite sense in her book, Female Chauvinist Pigs, in which she argues that many young women in the United States and beyond are replicating male chauvinism and older misogynist stereotypes.^[16]

References