cheese

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A product obtained from coagulating and draining milk, cream or a mixture of the two. The quality, nutritional value and characteristics of cheese vary according to the type of milk used (cow, goat, sheep, buffalo), the method of production and local preferences.

Cheese making

Coagulation ("curdling") is the curd-forming stage, when the casein (the protein contained in the milk) coagulates in response to bacteria or rennet.

Drainage consists of removing the water (the whey or lactoserum) from the curd and making it firmer. The amount of whey retained in the curd after draining will determine the firmness and texture of the cheese. It is during the draining stage that the curd is shaped in a mold. 

Salting acts as an antiseptic, slows down the development of microorganisms, improves the storage life of the cheese and speeds up the drying process and the formation of a rind. Cheeses can be salted from the outside (dry salting) or in a brine bath. Some cheeses are fermented with molds to obtain a "bloomy" rind (the "croûte fleurie" of Brie and Camembert) or the veins of blue cheeses (Roquefort, Gorgonzola). 

Ripening (or maturing) is the period during which the inside of the cheese is transformed through the biochemical action of the bacterial flora contained in the cheese. This is the crucial stage in which the consistency, aroma, flavor and, if desired, the rind of the cheese develop (fresh curd cheeses and process cheeses are not ripened). Ripening takes place under temperature and humidity conditions that vary according to the type of cheese. The longer the ripening process, the less moisture the cheese retains, and the firmer and stronger-tasting the cheese will be.

Cheeses are generally classified according to their firmness.

Fresh cheeses (unripened) are coagulated through the action of lactic acid bacteria. They are simply drained (cottage, ricotta, mascarpone, cream cheese, Petit Suisse, quark). They are not aged and should be eaten quickly. They are generally low-fat (0.1%-13% fat) and low-energy foods. They become high in fat and energy when they are made with cream (up to 30% fat, in the case of cream cheese). 
Several contain additives, thickeners and preservatives. Fresh cheeses are smooth, creamy or granular, with a mild or slightly acidic flavor. They are used mainly in pastries and desserts. They are available plain or flavored with vegetables, fruits or spices.

Unripened stretched curd cheeses are obtained by kneading and stretching the undrained curd until it acquires the desired consistency. This process gives them a supple texture. This category includes mozzarella, scarmoza, provolone, bocconcini and caciotta. Mozzarella is especially popular as a topping on pizza and pasta.

Soft cheeses are ripened for a relatively short period, drained and molded. Fats make up 20%-26% of the weight of the cheese. They acquire a velvet-like rind. The fermentation process begins on the surface of the cheese and moves toward the center. They are not used very much in cooking, because they lose a great deal of flavor when heated.

Soft cheeses are divided into two categories.

      • Bloomy-rind cheeses are covered with a thin layer of white down or mold, with a velvety appearance (Camembert, Brie, Brillat-Savarin, Coulommiers); this rind is edible, but should be removed if its taste is too strong.

      • Washed-rind cheeses are cheeses that undergo light brine washes (Munster, Pont-l'Évêque, Livarot, Bel Paese, Époisses). They have a delicate flavor and intense aroma. The ripening of some of these cheeses is finished by dipping them in alcohol, such as wine or beer. 

Semi-firm cheeses are pressed, uncooked cheeses that undergo quite a long ripening period. These cheeses (Cheddar, Cantal, Reblochon, Gouda, Edam, Fontina, Saint-Nectaire, Morbier, Tomme, Tilsiter, Monterey Jack) have a dense consistency and a pale yellow interior.

Firm cheeses (or hard cheeses) are cheeses that are pressed and cooked. These cheeses (Gruyère, Emmental, Jarlsberg, Comté, raclette, Beaufort, Parmesan, Romano) may or may not possess a hard rind. The texture of the interior is generally firm, but can sometimes be very grainy, as in the case of Parmesan and Romano.

Blue-veined cheeses (or "blue cheeses") are cheeses whose curd is first broken into pieces, molded, drained, salted, then fermented with molds. Fermentation begins on the inside and moves toward the outside. A whole network of blue-green veins forms through the action of the molds, and becomes more dense over time. These cheeses (Roquefort, Gorgonzola, Bleu de Bresse, Danish Blue, Stilton) have a peppery, strong, sharp taste and usually a crumbly texture.

Processed cheeses are cheeses made from one or several cooked or uncooked pressed cheeses that are re-melted, and to which milk, cream or butter is added; they keep for a long time. Depending on the product, stabilizers, emulsifiers, salt, colors, sweeteners and seasonings may be added. This results in a soft, elastic texture and mild flavor. In North America, these cheeses are mostly made using Cheddar cheese, whereas in Europe, Emmental and Gruyère are used most. Processed cheeses have different names depending on the quantity of cheese they contain (processed cheese, processed cheese food, cheese spread).

Cheese substitutes are imitation cheeses sometimes made from a single milk component, such as casein, to which artificial emulsifiers, flavors and colors are added. Some natural ingredients are also incorporated (soy, corn).

Goat cheeses (sometimes called chèvre, the French word for "goat") are cheeses with a soft interior and natural rind and can be made from 100% goat's milk ("pure chèvre") or goat's milk mixed with cow's milk ("mi-chèvre," if it contains at least 25% goat's milk). These cheeses may be fresh, soft with a bloomy rind or sometimes firm. They are more white than cow's milk cheese and have a stronger flavor. Goat cheese is generally moist, smooth and very salty in order to prolong its storage life. Some goat cheeses have evocative names (Chabichou, Crottin de Chavignol, Valencay, Chevrotin). Feta cheese is included in this category, made using sheep's milk, cow's milk or a mixture with goat's milk.

Buying

Soft cheeses

Choose: cheeses that are soft inside as well as out, with a creamy, consistent interior that is even in color and completely fills the rind, which should be smooth and not dry or cracked.

Avoid: cheeses with a solid, firm, chalky-white center, a sticky rind, a dark color or an ammonia smell. A hard rind and dry interior are signs of a cheese that has not been properly stored.

Semi-firm cheeses

Choose: cheeses that are neither dried out nor too crumbly. The interior of the cheese close to the rind should not be darker in color. They should not taste spoiled or sharp.

Firm cheeses

Choose: cheeses with an even color and consistency and a firm rind.

Avoid: dried out or bulging cheeses that are pasty or too grainy, with a cracked rind. They should not taste too salty or too bitter.

Blue cheeses 

Choose: cheeses with a smaller or greater number of veins, depending on the variety, spread evenly throughout the interior of the cheese. This interior, which is usually white, should not be crumbly, too dry or too salty.

Check the use-by date on the packaging and avoid cheeses that are left at room temperature.

Preparing

Only firm cheeses are grated. Cold cheese is easier to grate than cheese left at room temperature.

Serving Ideas

Cheese is used for stuffing, topping meats and vegetables or as the main ingredient of a dessert. It is prepared with savory dishes—salads, sauces, soups, croquettes, pizzas, pasta dishes, crepes, soufflés, fondues, raclette, grilled ham and cheese sandwiches, omelettes—and sweet dishes (cakes, pies, donuts). When seasoning a dish, take into account the fact that cheese is generally salty, particularly blue cheeses, whose salty taste is enhanced during cooking. One cheese may be replaced with another of the same kind. Cheese is often served at the end of a meal or as an appetizer accompanied with wine.

Storing

The storage life of cheeses mainly depends on their moisture content.

In the fridge: wrap the cheese well in a sheet of cheese paper or plastic wrap and place in the warmest area of the fridge.

      • Fresh and blue-veined cheeses are placed 7-10 days in an airtight container or 
tightly wrapped.

      • Soft cheeses keep a short time, especially when they have become ripe.

      • Semi-firm cheeses keep for several weeks.

      • Firm cheeses keep for 2 weeks.

      • Grated cheeses keep for 1 week.

Cheeses can also be stored at a temperature of 50°F-55°F (10°C-12°C). Surface-ripened cheeses (bloomy-rind, washed-rind) should not be vacuum-packed or sealed airtight.

For better flavor, remove cheeses from the fridge at least 30 min before eating them. If mold has developed on the surface of a firm cheese, cut off ¹/₂-¾ in. (1-2 cm) around the mold and cover with another piece of wrapping. Discard fresh and soft cheeses with such mold.

In the freezer: freeze pieces ¾ in. (2 cm) thick that weigh a maximum of 1 lb (500 g) (2¹/₂-3 months). Dry cheeses tolerate freezing better than moist cheeses (fresh cheeses don't freeze). Defrosting reduces the flavor of cheese, making it more crumbly. Defrost cheese in the fridge and use only for cooked dishes.

Cooking

Cheese melts more easily during cooking if it is shredded, grated or finely chopped. Added to a sauce, it is gently cooked until it just melts, not letting it boil. Firm cheeses withstand higher temperatures, in particular when used as a topping. Remove the cheese from the heat as soon as it is melted.

Nutritional Information

The nutritional value of cheese varies according to the fat content of the liquid used (milk, cream) and the mode of production. The firmer the cheese, the more likely it contains a significant amount of calcium and protein, whereas fresh cheeses contain little calcium but are a source of protein; cream cheeses are low in both protein and calcium.

The quality of the protein in cheese, and its ability to be absorbed by the body, are excellent. Its carbohydrate content is generally minimal, whereas its fat (mostly made up of saturated fatty acids) and calorie content varies greatly. Soft cheeses are not necessarily the highest in fat—on the contrary. Fresh cheeses contain 5-51 mg cholesterol per 3.5 oz (100 g); cream cheeses can contain up to 110 mg; and blue cheeses, 75-90 mg. The higher the moisture content of a cheese, the lower it is in energy. Fresh cheeses contain up to 80% moisture; soft cheeses, 50%-60%; semi-firm cheeses, 40%-60%; and firm cheeses, a maximum of 35%.

Fresh cheeses contain less calcium and phosphorus than firm cheeses. 

Cheese contains fewer minerals than milk, but it still remains a good source. Sodium is usually present in considerable amounts; processed and blue cheeses are particularly high in sodium. Cheese remains a concentrated source of B vitamins. It still contains considerable amounts of vitamin A, except in the case of fresh and skim-milk cheeses, which have lower amounts. The rinds of certain soft-rind and bloomy-rind cheeses can contain more vitamins than the interior of the cheese. 

Eating large amounts of cheese results in a high intake of fat, calories and salt, unless one chooses skim-milk and low-salt cheeses. It can also mean ingesting food additives, especially in the case of process cheese foods or cheese spreads. Some of these products, including colorings, play only an esthetic role; thus the only difference between a white Cheddar and a yellow Cheddar lies in the added coloring.

Cheese cannot cause constipation. This condition is due rather to lack of fiber and water in the diet. Eating cheese after a meal can be beneficial as a form of protection against tooth decay.

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For more information on cheese, visit Britannica.com.

Background

Cheese is a fermented food derived from the milk of various mammals. Since humans began to domesticate milk-producing animals around 10,000 B.C., they have known about the propensity of milk to separate into curds and whey. As milk sours, it breaks down into curds, lumps of phosphoprotein, and whey, a watery, grey fluid that contains lactose, minerals, vitamins, and traces of fat. It is the curds that are used to make cheese, and practically every culture on Earth has developed its own methods, the only major exceptions being China and the ancient Americas.

The first cheeses were "fresh," that is, not fermented. They consisted solely of salted white curds drained of whey, similar to today's cottage cheese. The next step was to develop ways of accelerating the natural separation process. This was achieved by adding rennet to the milk. Rennet is an enzyme from the stomachs of young ruminants—a ruminant is an animal that chews its food very thoroughly and possesses a complex digestive system with three or four stomach chambers; in the United States, cows are the best known creatures of this kind. Rennet remains the most popular way of "starting" cheese, though other starting agents such as lactic acid and various plant extracts are also used.

By A.D. 100 cheese makers in various countries knew how to press, ripen, and cure fresh cheeses, thereby creating a product that could be stored for long periods. Each country or region developed different types of cheese that reflected local ingredients and conditions. The number of cheeses thus developed is staggering. France, famous for the quality and variety of its cheeses, is home to about 400 commercially available cheeses.

The next significant step to affect the manufacture of cheese occurred in the 1860s, when Louis Pasteur introduced the process that bears his name. Pasteurization entails heating milk to partially sterilize it without altering its basic chemical structure. Because the process destroys dangerous micro-organisms, pasteurized milk is considered more healthful, and most cheese is made from pasteurized milk today.

The first and simplest way of extending the length cheese would keep without spoiling was simply ageing it. Aged cheese was popular from the start because it kept well for domestic use. In the 1300s, the Dutch began to seal cheese intended for export in hard rinds to maintain its freshness, and, in the early 1800s, the Swiss became the first to process cheese. Frustrated by the speed with which their cheese went bad in the days before refrigeration, they developed a method of grinding old cheese, adding filler ingredients, and heating the mixture to produce a sterile, uniform, long-lasting product. Another advantage of processing cheese was that it permitted the makers to recycle edible, second-grade cheeses in a palatable form.

Prior to the twentieth century, most people considered cheese a specialty food, produced in individual households and eaten rarely. However, with the advent of mass production, both the supply of and the demand for cheese have increased. In 1955, 13 percent of milk was made into cheese. By 1984, this percentage had grown to 31 percent, and it continues to increase. Interestingly, though processed cheese is now widely available, it represents only one-third of the cheese being made today. Despite the fact that most cheeses are produced in large factories, a majority are still made using natural methods. In fact, small, "farmhouse" cheese making has made a comeback in recent years. Many Americans now own their own small cheese-making businesses, and their products have become quite popular, particularly among connoisseurs.

Raw Materials

Cheese is made from milk, and that milk comes from animals as diverse as cows, sheep, goats, horses, camels, water buffalo, and reindeer. Most cheese makers expedite the curdling process with rennet, lactic acid, or plant extracts, such as the vegetable rennet produced from wild artichokes, fig leaves, safflower, or melon.

In addition to milk and curdling agents, cheeses may contain various ingredients added to enhance flavor and color. The great cheeses of the world may acquire their flavor from the specific bacterial molds with which they have been inoculated, an example being the famous Penicillium roqueforti used to make France's Roquefort and England's Stilton. Cheeses may also be salted or dyed, usually with annatto, an orange coloring made from the pulp of a tropical tree, or carrot juice. They may be washed in brine or covered with ashes. Cheese makers who wish to avoid rennet may encourage the bacterial growth necessary to curdling by a number of odd methods. Some cheeses possess this bacteria because they are made from unpasteurized milk. Other cheeses, however, are reportedly made from milk in which dung or old leather have been dunked; still others acquire their bacteria from being buried in mud.

The unusual texture and flavor of processed cheese are obtained by combining several types of natural cheese and adding salt, milk-fat, cream, whey, water, vegetable oil, and other fillers. Processed cheese will also have preservatives, emulsifiers, gums, gelatin, thickeners, and sweeteners as ingredients. Most processed cheese and some natural cheeses are flavored with such ingredients as paprika, pepper, chives, onions, cumin, car-away seeds, jalapeño peppers, hazelnuts, raisins, mushrooms, sage, and bacon. Cheese can also be smoked to preserve it and give it a distinctive flavor.

The Manufacturing
Process

Although cheese making is a linear process, it involves many factors. Numerous varieties of cheese exist because ending the simple preparation process at different points can produce different cheeses, as can varying additives or procedures. Cheese making has long been considered a delicate process. Attempts to duplicate the success of an old cheese factory have been known to fail because conditions at a new factory do not favor the growth of the proper bacteria.

Preparing the milk

• Small cheese factories accept either morning milk (which is richer), evening milk, or both. Because it is generally purchased from small dairies which don't pasteurize, this milk contains the bacteria necessary to produce lactic acid, one of the agents that triggers curdling. The cheese makers let the milk sit until enough lactic acid has formed to begin producing the particular type of cheese they're making. Depending on the type of cheese being produced, the cheese makers may then heat the ripening milk. This process differs slightly at large cheese factories, which purchase pasteurized milk and must consequently add a culture of bacteria to produce lactic acid.

Separating the curds from the whey

• The next step is to add animal or vegetable rennet to the milk, furthering its separation into curds and whey. Once formed, the curds are cut both vertically and horizontally with knives. In large factories, huge vats of curdled milk are cut vertically using sharp, multi-bladed, wire knives reminiscent of oven racks. The same machine then agitates the curds and slices them horizontally. If the cutting is done manually, the curds are cut both ways using a large, two-handled knife. Soft cheeses are cut into big chunks, while hard cheeses are cut into tiny chunks. (For cheddar, for instance, the space between the knives is about one-twentieth of an inch [half a centimeter].) After cutting, the curds may be heated to hasten the separation from the whey, but they are more typically left alone. When separation is complete, the whey is drained.

Pressing the curds

• Moisture must then be removed from the curds, although the amount removed depends on the type of cheese. For some types with high moisture contents, the whey-draining process removes sufficient moisture. Other types require the curds to be cut, heated, and/or filtered to get rid of excess moisture. To make cheddar cheese, for example, cheese makers cheddar, or finely chop, the curd. To make hard, dry cheeses such as parmesan, cheese makers first cheddar and then cook the curd. Regardless, if the curds are to be aged, they are then put into molds. Here, they are pressed to give the proper shape and size. Soft cheeses such as cottage cheese are not aged.

Ageing the cheese

• At this stage the cheese may be inoculated with a flavoring mold, bathed in brine, or wrapped in cloth or hay before being deposited in a place of the proper temperature and humidity to age. Some cheeses are aged for a month, some for up to several years. Ageing sharpens the flavor of the cheese; for example, cheddar aged more than two years is appropriately labeled extra sharp.

Wrapping natural cheese

• Some cheeses may develop a rind naturally, as their surfaces dry. Other rinds may form from the growth of bacteria that has been sprayed on the surface of the cheese. Still other cheeses are washed, and this process encourages bacterial growth. In place of or in addition to rinds, cheeses can be sealed in cloth or wax. For local eating, this may be all the packaging that is necessary. However, large quantities of cheese are packaged for sale in distant countries. Such cheeses may be heavily salted for export (such as Roquefort) or sealed in impermeable plastic or foil.

Making and wrapping processed
cheese

• Edible yet inferior cheeses can be saved and made into processed cheese. Cheeses such as Emmental (commonly called Swiss), Gruyere (similar to Swiss), Colby, or cheddar are cut up and very finely ground. After this powder has been mixed with water to form a paste, other ingredients such as salt, fillers, emulsifiers, preservatives, and flavorings are added. The mixture is then heated under controlled conditions. While still warm and soft, the cheese paste is extruded into long ribbons that are sliced. The small sheets of cheese are then put onto a plastic or foil sheet and wrapped by a machine.

Quality Control

Cheese making has never been an easily regulated, scientific process. Quality cheese has always been the sign of an experienced, perhaps even lucky cheese maker insistent upon producing flavorful cheese. Subscribing to analytical tests of cheese characteristics may yield a good cheese, but cheese making has traditionally been a chancy endeavor. Developing a single set of standards for cheese is difficult because each variety of cheese has its own range of characteristics. A cheese that strays from this range will be bad-tasting and inferior. For example, good soft blue cheese will have high moisture and a high pH; cheddar will have neither.

One controversy in the cheese field centers on whether it is necessary to pasteurize the milk that goes into cheese. Pasteurization was promoted because of the persistence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, a pathogen or disease-causing bacteria that occurs in milk products. The United States allows cheeses that will be aged for over sixty days to be made from unpasteurized milk; however, it requires that many cheeses be made from pasteurized milk. Despite these regulations, it is possible to eat cheeses made from unpasteurized milk to no ill effect. In fact, cheese connoisseurs insist that pasteurizing destroys the natural bacteria necessary for quality cheese manufacture. They claim that modern cheese factories are so clean and sanitary that pasteurization is unnecessary. So far, the result of this controversy has merely been that connoisseurs avoid pasteurized milk cheeses.

Regulations exist so that the consumer can purchase authentic cheeses with ease. France, the preeminent maker of a variety of natural cheeses, began granting certain regions monopolies on the manufacture of certain cheeses. For example, a cheese labeled "Roquefort" is guaranteed to have been ripened in the Combalou caves, and such a guarantee has existed since 1411. Because cheese is made for human consumption, great care is taken to insure that the raw materials are of the highest quality, and cheese intended for export must meet particularly stringent quality control standards.

Because they possess such disparate characteristics, different types of cheese are required to meet different compositional standards. Based on its moisture and fat content, a cheese is labeled soft, semi-soft, hard, or very hard. Having been assigned a category, it must then fall within the range of characteristics considered acceptable for cheeses in that category. For example, cheddar, a hard cheese, can contain no more than 39 percent water and no less than 50 percent fat. In addition to meeting compositional standards, cheese must also meet standards for flavor, aroma, body, texture, color, appearance, and finish. To test a batch of cheese, inspectors core a representative wheel vertically in several places, catching the center, the sides, and in between. The inspector then examines the cheese to detect any inconsistencies in texture, rubs it to determine body (or consistency), smells it, and tastes it. Cheese is usually assigned points for each of these characteristics, with flavor and texture weighing more than color and appearance.

Processed cheese is also subject to legal restrictions and standards. Processed American cheese must contain at least 90 percent real cheese. Products labeled "cheese food" must be 51 percent cheese, and most are 65 percent. Products labeled "cheese spread" must also be 51 percent cheese, the difference being that such foods have more water and gums to make them spreadable. "Cheese product" usually refers to a diet cheese that has more water and less cheese than American cheese, cheese food, or cheese spread, but the specific amount of cheese is not regulated. Similarly, "imitation cheese" is not required to contain a minimum amount of cheese, and cheese is usually not its main ingredient. In general, quality processed cheese should resemble cheese and possess some cheesy flavor, preferably with a "bite" such as sharp cheddar cheese has. The cheese should be smooth and evenly colored; it should also avoid rubberiness and melt in the mouth.

Where To Learn More

Books

Brown, Bob. The Complete Book of Cheese. Gramercy Publishing, 1955.

Carr, Sandy. The Simon and Schuster Pocket Guide to Cheese. Simon and Schuster, 1981.

Kosikowski, Frank. Cheese and Fermented Milk Foods. Cornell University, 1966.

Mills, Sonya. The World Guide to Cheese. Gallery Books, 1988.

Timperley, Carol and Cecilia Norman. A Gourmet's Guide to Cheese. HP Books, 1989.

Periodicals

"American Cheese and 'Cheeses'," Consumer Reports. November, 1990, pp. 728-732.

Birmingham, David. "Gruyere's Cheese-makers," History Today. February, 1991, pp. 21-26.

Raichlen, Steven. "Farmhouse Cheeses," Yankee. February, 1991, pp. 84-92.

[Article by: Rose Secrest]

Author Clifton Fadiman said it best when he described cheese as "milk's leap toward immortality." Almost everyone loves one type of cheese or another, whether it's delectably mild, creamy and soft or pungent, hard and crumbly. To begin with, cheese can be broken down into two very broad categories-fresh and ripened. Within these basic categories, however, are a multitude of subdivisions, usually classified according to the texture of the cheese and how it was made. Naturally, many of these categories overlap because a cheese can have an entirely different character when young than it does when aged. Most cheese begins as milk (usually cow's, goat's or sheep's) that is allowed to thicken (sometimes with the addition of rennin or special bacteria) until it separates into a liquid (whey) and semisolids (curd). The whey is drained off and the curds are either allowed to drain or pressed into different shapes, depending on the variety. At this stage it is called fresh (or unripened) cheese. Among the most popular fresh cheeses on the market today are cottage cheese, cream cheese, pot cheese and ricotta. In order to become a ripened (or aged) cheese, the drained curds are cured by a variety of processes including being subjected to heat, bacteria, soaking and so on. The curds are also sometimes flavored with salt, spices or herbs and some, like many cheddars, are colored with a natural dye. After curing, natural cheese begins a ripening process during which it's stored, usually uncovered, at a controlled temperature and humidity until the desired texture and character is obtained. It can be covered with wax or other protective coating before or after this ripening process. Ripened cheeses are further classified according to texture. Hard cheeses are cooked, pressed and aged for long periods (usually at least 2 years) until hard and dry, and are generally used for grating. Among the more well known of this genre are parmesan and pecorino. Semifirm cheeses such as cheddar, edam and jarlsberg are firm but not usually crumbly. They have been cooked and pressed but not aged as long as those in the firm-cheese category. Semisoft cheeses are pressed but can be either cooked or uncooked. Their texture is sliceable but soft. Among the more popular semisoft cheeses are gouda, jack and tilsit. Soft-ripened (or surface-ripened) cheeses are neither cooked nor pressed. They are, however, subjected to various bacteria (either by spraying or dipping), which ripens the cheese from the outside in. Such cheeses develop a rind that is either powdery white (as in brie) or golden orange (like pont l'évêque). The consistency of soft-ripened cheese can range from semisoft to creamy and spreadable. Some cheeses are further categorized by process. Blue-veined cheeses, for example, are inoculated or sprayed with spores of the molds Penicillium roqueforti or penicillium glaucum. Some of these cheeses are punctured with holes to ensure that the mold will penetrate during the aging period. The result of these painstaking efforts are cheeses with veins or pockets of flavorful blue or green mold. Another special-process category is pasta filata ("spun paste"), Italy's famous stretched-curd cheeses. They're made using a special technique whereby the curd is given a hot whey bath, then kneaded and stretched to the desired pliable consistency. Among the pasta filata cheeses are mozzarella, provolone and caciocavallo. Whey cheeses are another special category. Instead of beginning with milk, they're made from the whey drained from the making of other cheeses. The whey is reheated (usually with rennin) until it coagulates. Probably the best known of this cheese type are gjetost and Italian ricotta. There are a variety of reduced-fat and fat-free cheeses on the market today. They're commonly made either partially or completely with nonfat milk, and supplemented with various additives for texture and flavor. Unfortunately, the more the fat is reduced in cheese, the less flavor it has. Not only that, but the less fat there is, the worse cheese does when melted. The texture of such cheese turns rubbery when heated and, in fact, nonfat cheese never really seems to melt, but obstinately remains in its original form. For these reasons, low- and nonfat cheeses are best used in cold preparations like sandwiches. Imitation cheese is just that-a fusion that generally includes tofu, calcium caseinate (a milk protein), rice starch, lecithin and various additives. It's a nondairy, nonfat, noncholesterol and nonflavor food that, for those who like cheese, is better left at the store. Storing cheese: Firm, semifirm and semisoft cheese should be wrapped airtight in a plastic bag and stored in a refrigerator's cheese compartment (or warmest location) for up to several weeks. Such cheeses can be frozen, but will likely undergo a textural change. Fresh and soft-ripened cheeses should be tightly wrapped and stored in the coldest part of the refrigerator, generally for no more than 2 weeks. If mold appears on firm, semifirm or semisoft cheese, simply cut away the offending portion (plus a little extra) and discard. Mold on fresh or soft-ripened cheese, however, signals that it should be thrown out. Firm and semifirm cheeses are easier to grate if they're cold. All cheese tastes better if brought to room temperature before serving. See also appenzeller; asadero; asiago; banon; bellelay; bel paese; bierkäse; blue cheese; bocconcini; bonbel; boursault; boursin; brick cheese; bryndza; bûcheron; caerphilly; cambozola; camembert; cantal; casein; chaource; chenna; cheshire; chèvre; colby; crema dania; creole cream cheese; crescenza; danablu; danbo; derby; devonshire cheese; dolcelatte; double-cream cheese; dunlop; emmental; esrom; explorateur; farmer cheese; feta; fondue; fontina; gervais; gjetost; gloucester; gorzonzola; gourmandise; gruyere; handkäse; havarti; herve; hopfenkäse; kasseri; kuminost; lancashire; leicester; leyden; lieder-kranz; limburger; liptauer; longhorn; manchego; mascarpone; montasio; montrachet; muenster; neufchâtel; panir; pasta filata; petit suisse; port-salut; processed cheese; pyramide; quark; queso fresco; queso fundido; raclette; reblochon; romano; roquefort; saga blue; saint andré; samsoe; sapsago; sbrinz; scamorze; soy cheese; stilton; stracchino; swiss cheese; taleggio; teleme; tillamook; tybo; vacherin.

Idioms beginning with cheese:
cheesed off
cheese it

See also big cheese.

from Urdu
This word originated in Pakistan And India

You might expect the big cheese to come from Wisconsin. Or, viewed historically, it might be considered a nickname for the twelve-hundred pound "mammoth cheese" presented to President Thomas Jefferson on New Year's Day 1802 by the Republican farmers of Cheshire, Massachusetts. But in fact it seems to have come from the other side of the world, from the Urdu language of Pakistan.

That's because this is not the same cheese as the milk product that serves as a topping for pizza, the main ingredient of fondue, or headgear for fans of the Green Bay Packers football team. It's a cheese that means "thing" in Urdu and has been imported into English spoken in the Indian subcontinent with the meaning "thing" or "the real thing." Salman Rushdie, in his 1995 novel The Moor's Last Sigh, uses cheese with that meaning.

English has had this special meaning of cheese since at least 1818. "You look like a Prince in it," says a character in William Makepeace Thackeray's Codlingsby (1850). "It is the cheese," replies the other. In the twentieth century this became the main cheese (1903), the real cheese (1914), even the head cheese (1914); and then, from as early as 1914, the big cheese, which is the current favorite. In his famous 1914 short story "Haircut," Ring Lardner has one character saying, "They was one big innin' every day and Parker was the big cheese in it." At the end of the twentieth century, the term was well established. You could find a site on the Internet proclaiming, "Yes, this year, 1998, we are going to see some manifestation of THE Antichrist, the big cheese himself."

Urdu, a member of the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family, is the national language of Pakistan, where it is spoken by more than ten million people, and it has nearly fifty million additional speakers in India. It is a Muslim language closely related to the Hindu language Hindi. Because Urdu and Hindi are so similar, it is often difficult to tell which one has contributed a word to English. Other possibilities from Urdu include nabob (1612) or nawab (1758), an important person; chador (1614), the modest robe that conceals Moslem women, and purdah (1865), the policy that requires the concealment; howdah (1774), a saddle for an elephant, and khaki (1857), which needs no introduction.

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Cheese, which has been described as "milk's leap toward immortality," can be more dispassionately defined as a product of milk fermentation. Yet part of our fascination with cheese may come from the sheer number and diversity of cheeses worldwide. They number into the thousands, although an exact count is difficult, as cheeses are notoriously difficult to classify. A classification of cheese only in terms of bacteriological processes neglects the symbolism of ancient mythologies, regional pride, and artistic ingenuity that are embedded in this, one of the simplest and most complicated of foods. The mythology of cheese is shared by disparate groups: the Greeks gods and mortals, the conquerors and conquered of the Roman Empire, a delighted Napoleon and the waitress who first served him Camembert. The legends are compelling, but not as much as the product itself.

History

The beginnings of cheesemaking are unknown, but it has been generally reasoned that the knowledge of how to turn milk into cheese closely followed upon the domestication of lactating animals. Some of the earliest archaeological evidence of cheesemaking comes from the Fertile Crescent, where animals were domesticated around 8000 B.C.E. A Sumerian relief (c. 3500–2800 B.C.E.) portrays cattle and dairying practice. Pots that had likely contained cheese were discovered in the tomb of Horus-aha, the second king of the Egyptian First Dynasty (c. 3000–2800 B.C.E.). And perforated bowls (c. 3000–1000 B.C.E.) made from pottery or rushes have been found in more than one European location. These bowls were designed to drain the liquid whey from the solid curds.

Cheesemaking was an efficient means of preserving an extremely perishable food (milk) from the spoiling effects of the Near East climate. The art and science of cheesemaking spread into Europe, and quickly became a regular part of the diet and a symbol of strength in ancient Greece, where Olympians trained on diets of cheese. Polyphemus, the brutal Cyclops of Homer's Odyssey, milks his animals amid the racks of cheese in his cave, while Odysseus watches quietly nearby. According to Greek mythology, the knowledge of cheesemaking was a gift to mortals by the gods of Mount Olympus. Roman soldiers carried cheese rations with them as the Roman Empire grew, though cheesemaking was highly developed in the Celtic parts of Europe. The Feast of Imbolc (2 February) was a celebration of the approach of spring: the new lambs and the milk of the ewes represented the changing seasons and were honored as a first sign of spring.

Artisanal cheesemaking might have been lost after the fall of the Roman Empire if not for the Christian monasteries. The monks not only preserved cultural traditions during the Dark Ages, but spent much time reworking and improving cheese recipes. Their creations, among them French Munster and Epoisses, are still referred to as "monastery" or "trappist cheeses."

In the following centuries, cheesemaking grew as an art and industry. The first commercial cheese factory in the United States was established in Rome, New York, in 1851. Innovations like the kind of cream cheese popularly known as Philadelphia Cream Cheese and pasteurizing whole cheese (patented in the United States by James Kraft in 1916) followed. Almost a century of pasteurized process cheese sales in the United States and abroad have demonstrated their popularity, but a growing number of cheesemakers and cheese-eaters are committing to the preservation and production of artisanal (made by hand) and farmstead (made from the animals of a farm on that farm) cheeses. Several books about specialty cheeses have been published in the last few years, and wider selections of domestic and imported cheeses are available in supermarket, and restaurants.

Milk

When confronted by the vast number of cheeses, the different shapes, colors and aromas at a well-stocked cheese counter, it is astonishing to remember that all these endless varieties come from only one basic ingredient. Although a cheesemaker makes many decisions throughout the cheesemaking process that will affect the finished product, the first step is always to select the raw material, milk.

Cheese can be made from any animal that produces milk: cow, sheep, goat, camel, mare, buffalo, or yak. With the exception of Italy's mozzarella di bufala, made from the milk of herds of water-buffalo, cheeses in the Western world are typically made from the milk of cows, goats, and sheep. Of the three animals, sheep produce the lowest volume of milk, but because it is so much higher in fat and protein content than either goat's or cow's milk, less of it is needed to make cheese. On average, ten pounds of cow's or goat's milk or about half that amount of sheep's milk is required to make one pound of cheese. In contrast to the rich, concentrated flavor of sheep's milk, goat's milk is slightly sweet and fresh-tasting; cow's milk is the lightest of the three. The milk of individual breeds of the same species also has a unique flavor profile. Consequently, the laws governing many name-controlled cheeses specify the breed of animal from which the milk is to come. Cheese-makers have the further choice of how to use the milk they collect: full fat, partly skimmed, or with extra cream added.

Free-grazing animals feast on a bounty of wild grasses, flowers, and other vegetation during the warmer months. This gives their milk a complexity of flavor that is easily distinguishable from the milk of grain-fed animals in winter. Some cheesemakers insist that they can perceive slight flavor adjustments daily—as the animals move from one pasture to another.

Pasteurization

Milk used for cheese may or may not be pasteurized. Pasteurization is a process of heating milk that destroys most of the naturally present bacteria (see Cheese Safety below). Current U.S. law requires that cheeses be pasteurized or, if made from unpasteurized milk, aged for at least sixty days at 35°F before sale for consumption. Milk may be pasteurized in one of two ways: by heating it to 161°F for fifteen seconds, or by heating it to 145°F for thirty minutes (the latter method is sometimes called "heat treatment"). These laws apply to both domestically produced and imported cheeses. When cheese is made from unpasteurized milk, it is frequently referred to as "raw milk" cheese, connoting that the milk has not been "cooked." Most cheesemakers believe that the brilliant nuances of flavor found in raw milk, with its naturally present "good" bacteria, simply cannot be duplicated in a pasteurized milk cheese, though some well-respected cheeses, including British Stilton, are made only from pasteurized milk.

The Principles of Cheesemaking

An oft-repeated legend has it that the first cheesemaker fell into the role by accident. A nomadic tribesman prepared for a long desert journey, he carried a bag made from the dried stomach of a young sheep and filled with milk. As he walked steadily under the relentless sun, the milk began to curdle. Noting that this "fresh cheese" had a pleasant taste and did not spoil as easily as milk, the nomad later drained off the whey and salted the curds to enhance these qualities. The cheesemaking tradition had begun.

While modern cheesemaking techniques are more refined and recipes have become standardized, the basic principles remain the same now as when the (possibly apocryphal) nomad of cheese legend opened his sheep's stomach bag (which supplied the coagulating rennet), warmed by the sun and agitated by his rhythmic trek.

The Steps of Cheesemaking

There are as many recipes for cheese as there are cheeses, but all of them follow some combination of these steps.

Acidification: souring the milk. The milk is gently warmed to encourage the growth of lactic acid bacteria, Streptococci and Lactobacilli. These bacteria feed on the milk sugar lactose, changing it to lactic acid. As the acidity rises, the solids in the milk (casein protein, fat, some vitamins and minerals) clump together, forming curds in the watery whey (milk is approximately 85 percent water). This is the first step for making all cheeses; in ancient times, cheeses were most likely the result of leaving pots of milk to sour naturally in the sun, affected by bacteria in the air. Some cheesemakers still wait for these process to begin with free, airborne lactic acid bacteria, but most use a starter culture. Starters are widely available commercially, but cheesemakers can also use a bit of the previous day's milk (unless it is pasteurized)—the same principle as with a sourdough bread starter.

Renneting: coagulating the curd. Cheesemaking has been referred to as "controlled spoiling" because of the need to efficiently form curds before undesirable bacteria cause the milk to become rancid. The enzyme rennin, traditionally removed from the stomach lining of a young animal (usually the same species of animal that supplied the milk), hastens and completes the curdling process. The renneting property of some plants has been recognized nearly since the dawn of cheesemaking; these vegetable rennets are the traditional agents in several cheeses. Other vegetarian rennets, made from a yeast or fungus, are also used today.

The curd is left to "set," forming a network of protein that traps the other milk solids inside. As the solids bind more tightly together, they begin to push out the liquid whey, a process the cheesemaker may continue by cutting, cooking, and pressing. The whey is sometimes used to make cheese as well (Italian ricotta and Cypriot hallumi are two examples), but usually it is discarded.

Treating the curds. After renneting, cheese recipes diverge. Some soft cheeses, like fresh goat's milk cheese, are gently transferred to molds. The curd's own weight will continue to press out whey. These cheeses might be labeled "hand ladled" to indicate that they were created using this time-consuming method. The Greeks called the molds that held the curds formos, which became the root for cheese in Italy (formaggio) and France (fromage). Our English word "cheese" has its root in the Latin caseus, which became Käse in German and queso in Spanish.

In contrast to the light touch required for soft cheeses, which derive their creamy texture from a higher water content, the curds for other cheeses are sliced and chopped, by hand or machine, to release more whey. The smaller the curds are cut, the firmer the resulting cheese. Cheddar and some other cheeses undergo a unique process called "cheddaring," which results in its firm, flaky texture. Blocks of curd are stacked, turned, and restacked to press out as much whey as possible. Then the dry curds are milled, ground into tiny pieces, and packed into molds.

Some hard cheeses are "cooked," that is, the curds are reheated during processing. This causes the curds to release even more whey and alters the texture of the cheese. Examples of cooked cheeses include Emmentaler, Appenzeller, and Gruyère.

Preparation for aging: salting, molding, and pressing. Cheeses can be salted in four different ways. For some cheeses, the salt is stirred directly into the curd. A second method involves rubbing or sprinkling dry salt onto the rind of a cheese. This helps to form the rind, protecting the inside of the cheese from ripening too quickly. Some large cheeses are soaked in a pool of brine. The fourth option is to wash the surface of the cheese with a brine solution. In the case of washed-rind cheeses, the salt does not protect the cheese from bacteria—it invites them. The cheeses must be regularly rubbed with water, brine, or alcohol to encourage the growth of the bacteria that give them their sticky orange rinds and distinctive aroma.

Cheese is then transferred, if it has not been already, to a mold where the final cheese will take shape. The whey of soft cheeses drips through the holes in their molds, pressed out by the cheese's weight. Other, firmer cheeses are pressed by hand or machine to extract the last bits of whey.

Ripening. During the ripening or aging stage, the cheesemaker cares for the cheese at a precise temperature and humidity level until it is ready to eat; this can range anywhere from a few weeks for a soft-ripened cheese to a few years for a wheel of Parmigiano-Reggiano. Depending on the variety, ripening cheeses need to be turned to equally distribute the butterfat and brushed to maintain the rind quality.

Name-Controlled Cheeses

Before the 1951 Stresa Convention in Stresa, Italy, it was impossible for traditional, regional cheesemakers to protect their products from inauthentic forgeries. The delegates to this international conference accomplished two goals: they created a uniform definition of "cheese" to facilitate international trade, and protected by law the names and origins of a select group of treasured traditional cheeses. Protected cheeses fall into two categories. A few cheeses, including France's Roquefort and Switzerland's Sbrinz, are given absolute protection—the cheese cannot be made outside of its designated region. A second group of cheeses may be produced in nontraditional areas, but must be clearly labeled with its region of origin. Camembert produced in the United States is a good example of this second group.

"Name-controlled" cheeses must meet stringent laws that go beyond the international standards for processing and safety. The departments and associations that supervise these cheeses differ from country to country (and from cheese to cheese), but generally emphasize the unique, regional quality of the cheese. In Switzerland, for example, cheeses must be native to the area in which they are made. France has the most specific cheese production laws of any country. The Appellation d'Origine Contrôllée (AOC) designation indicates that a cheesemaker has complied with regulations that include the type and breed of animal from which the milk comes, location of production of both milk and cheese, production techniques (including pasteurization), the final composition of the cheese (its fat and moisture content, for example), and the physical and sensory attributes of the cheese, which include its shape, size, and of course, flavor. Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Great Britain are also home to name-controlled cheeses.

The effort to control cheese quality through government standards of identity can be related to similar efforts with wine. Purchasing a French cheese with the AOC designation on the label does not necessarily guarantee quality, however. Subtle differences between individual producers, milk quality, or aging time and conditions can make the difference between a great cheese and a not-so-great one.

Classifying Cheese

As Pierre Androuët asserts in his fundamental text Guide du Fromage (Guide to Cheese), a cheese should simply be what it is—its appearance, aroma, texture, and flavor should be characteristic of the variety to which it belongs. But how does one determinate a cheese's "type"? There are innumerable cheeses, and no single, standardized method for grouping them; rather, authorities employ different classification systems.

General characteristics, such as the type of milk (or whey) used or the country of origin, provide a starting point for discussing broad topics; for example, the relative unpopularity of sheep's milk cheese in the United States compared to European countries, or the social implications of cheese consumption in England as opposed to France. More specific classifications—the moisture content of the cheese (hard, semi-hard, soft, or fresh), whether it was made from pasteurized or unpasteurized milk, or the length of aging—may serve scientific inquiries concerned with bacterial development rates in different cheeses.

When cheese is classified by "type," it is grouped by similar characteristics like taste, smell, and appearance. The rind type and the method of production are often used as determining factors. Steven Jenkins describes eight different cheese "families" (including processed cheese) (Cheese Primer, pp. 11–13). These very common categories may help when choosing a cheese at the cheese counter, but a particular cheese may fit into more than one category, or not seem to fit in any.

Fresh cheese. After the formation of curds, the cheese (and also, sometimes, the whey) is usually transferred to plastic tubs and covered. The cheeses are eaten fresh, not ripened, and do not have a rind. Cottage cheese, cream cheese, and feta—a pickled cheese—are some common examples of fresh cheeses. Sometimes fresh Mozzarella is also included in this category because it does not form a rind, but this is problematic because Mozzarella curds are heated and stretched.

Bloomy rind cheeses. Also called simply "soft ripened cheese," this category includes cheeses like French Camembert and Brie, which are covered with velvety white molds that ripen the cheese from the outside in.

Washed-rind cheese. These orange, sticky, stinky cheeses are rubbed with a water, brine, or alcohol solution to invite the growth of ripening bacteria and molds on their rinds. Examples include the French Livarot (nicknamed "The Colonel" because it is ringed with raffia stripes) and Alsatian Munster.

Natural rind cheese. These cheeses are self-sufficient, naturally forming their rinds from air contact. Surface-molded goat cheeses and British Stilton are good examples. British farmhouse cheeses are sometimes included in the natural rind category because their permeable cheesecloth wrapping allows them to develop a thick protective rind. Likewise, Parmigiano-Reggiano and other cheeses are helped to form a rind that still develops largely from air contact.

Blue-veined cheese. To allow the growth of their distinctive bluish or greenish interior molds, these cheeses are never pressed. They are typically injected with a mold strain, and then pierced to expose the insides to air. They may be wrapped in foil like Italian Gorgonzola or form natural rinds like British Stilton.

Uncooked, pressed cheese. This is a category defined by processing type. These cheeses are pressed to remove whey, but are not cooked (see Treating the Curds).

Cooked, pressed cheese. Cheeses such as Swiss Emmental (sometimes Emmentaler) and Gruyère are cooked and pressed in the processes described above.

Processed cheese. There is another type of cheese that, because of its overwhelming presence in supermarket refrigerator cases, should not be overlooked. Pasteurized processed cheese is created by heating and mixing a blend of natural cheeses and emulsifiers. These cheeses—American cheese certainly being the best-known in the United States—can retain their flavor and texture qualities in a much broader range of temperature and moisture conditions than can natural cheeses, and for a longer period of time. They are also easy to use in a variety of dishes, and are typically less expensive than natural cheeses. Because the entire product, not just the milk, is pasteurized, and because processed cheeses are often vacuum-packaged, they are uniformly and consistently safe. The nutrient content of processed cheese remains very close to that of natural cheese, although the sodium content may be higher. All of these characteristics make them popular choices not only in the United States but in other countries as well.

Processed cheese food and cheese spread both contain natural cheese and emulsifying agents, but add other ingredients like whey, skim milk, milk powders, or water that raise the moisture content of the product. This causes them to melt or spread more easily. There are also imitation cheese products that contain little or no milk protein. Soy cheese is one example of an imitation cheese product.

Nutritional Value

The fat content of cheese is noted on its package as a certain percent butterfat. This can be misleading, however, because the fat content is evaluated as a percentage of the solids in the cheese (fat-in-dry-matter), not the overall weight of the cheese. Even a very hard, aged cheese like Parmigiano-Reggiano contains a significant amount of water, about 30 percent. As a cheese ages, it loses moisture, and the fat percentage relative to weight increases, though the fat-in-dry-matter remains the same. Soft cheeses typically have a high fat-in-dry-matter percentage, but they also contain more water than hard cheeses; their overall fat percentage is much lower, as much as half, the fat-in-dry-matter percentage.

Cheese's greatest nutritional advantage is its high protein content and the digestibility of that protein. In addition, cheese is a valuable source of vitamin A, vitamin B2, and vitamin B12, and the minerals calcium and phosphorus.

People who suffer from lactose intolerance often believe that they must forego cheese altogether. In fact, many cheeses (especially aged, hard cheeses like Parmigiano-Reggiano) contain very little or no lactose, as the lactose is expelled along with the whey. The small amounts of remaining lactose are mostly converted into lactic acid during the aging process.

Cheese Safety

Cheese has been cited as the vehicle for several bacterial outbreaks—defined as an illness from a common source that affects two or more people. Organisms communicated to humans through cheese have included Salmonella, Listeria monocytogenes, Brucella melitensis, and Escherichia coli (including E. coli O157). Nearly all of these bacteria are destroyed during the pasteurization process. Raw milk cheeses seem to have been the cause of reported outbreaks more often than pasteurized cheeses. In the interest of public safety, the United States requires that milk for cheesemaking be pasteurized or that the cheese be aged for sixty days. However, recent concerns about the effectiveness of pasteurization, coupled with alarm and confusion over animal disease outbreaks like mad cow disease and hoof-and-mouth disease (which do not affect milk safety) have prompted scientists and government officials to reevaluate the current policy.

A close review of the reported outbreaks reveals that current laws are probably adequate to prevent cheese-borne illnesses, provided that they are strictly enforced and the starting quality of the milk is high. Reports and studies of cheese-borne outbreaks often include "unpasteurized" and "improperly pasteurized" cheese in the same category, implying that milk that has not completed the pasteurization process is of the same quality as raw milk. Traditional cheesemakers would argue that this is not the case. When milk is intended for pasteurization, its initial bacterial quality need not be as high as that of raw milk, as all bacteria will be destroyed in the pasteurization process. However, if the pasteurization process were ever to fail, or if, as some researchers have hypothesized, pasteurization is not effective against all bacteria, milk of low initial bacterial quality increases the risk of cheese-borne illness. Cheesemakers who use raw milk, on the other hand, must take special care to keep it free of dangerous bacteria.

Few outbreaks have been caused by unpasteurized dairy products in which there was not at least one flaw in the production process. Curds from unpasteurized milk have been mislabeled as pasteurized, raw milk cheeses have been sold before the minimum required aging time, and fresh, unpasteurized Mexican soft cheese has been illegally imported and sold. All of the above cases involved raw milk cheeses, demonstrating the danger that can be associated with that product. Yet, they also show that the existing standards governing raw milk cheese could have prevented the outbreaks, if they had been carefully followed.

Bacterial levels in raw milk will always be higher than in properly pasteurized milk, even when the greatest of care is taken. Aging a cheese for at least sixty days has long been thought to neutralize harmful bacteria, but this may not be true for all types of cheeses and all types of bacteria. Certain groups of people, those with weakened immune systems or special concerns, should not consume raw milk products, particularly soft and semi-soft cheeses. A consumer choosing a raw milk cheese needs to do so fully aware of the possible risks. New labeling requirements could help make sure that people are informed of the risks and the pleasures when they purchase cheese.

Bibliography

Androuët, Pierre. Guide to Cheeses. With the help of N. Roche and G. Lambert, translated by John Githens, and new cheeses by Anthea Bell. Henley-on-Thames, U.K.: Aidan Ellis, 1993. New and revised edition. Originally published as Guide du fromage (Paris: Stock, 1971).

Fox, Patrick F., ed. Cheese: Chemistry, Physics and Microbiology. 2d ed. 2 vols. London: Chapman & Hall, 1993.

Harbutt, Juliet. Cheese: A Complete Guide to Over 300 Cheeses of Distinction. Minocqua, Wis.: Willow Creek Press, 1999.

Jenkins, Steven. Cheese Primer. New York: Workman, 1996.

Jones, Evan. The World of Cheese. New York: Knopf, 1978.

Kosikowski, Frank V., and Vikram V. Mistry. Cheese and Fermented Milk Foods. 3rd ed. 2 vols. Westport, Conn.: F. V. Kosikowski, 1997.

Masui, Kazuko, and Tomoko Yamada. French Cheeses. New York: DK Publishing, 1996.

McCalman, Max and David Gibbons. The Cheese Plate. New York: Clarkson Potter, 2002.

Nantet, Bernard, et al. Cheeses of the World. Translated by Clio Mitchell, Rob Jamieson, and Daniel Wheeler. New York: Rizzoli, 1993.

Pearl, Anita May, Constance Cuttle, and Barbara B. Deskins. Completely Cheese: The Cheeselover's Companion. Edited by David Kolatch. Middle Village, N.Y.: Jonathan David, 1978.

Rance, Patrick. The French Cheese Book. London: Macmillan, 1989.

Rance, Patrick. The Great British Cheese Book. London: Macmillan, 1982.

Sardo, Piero, Gigi Piumatti, and Roberto Rubino, eds. Italian Cheeses: A Guide to Their Discovery and Appreciation. Translated by Giles Watson, Helen Donald, and Michael Farrell. Bra, Italy: Slow Food Editore, 1999.

Simon, André. Cheeses of the World. 2d ed. London: Faber and Faber, 1960. Reprint, 1965.

Stamm, Eunice R. The History of Cheese Making in New York State: The History of Cheese Making in the Empire State from the Early Dutch Settlers to Modern Times. New York: Lewis Group, 1991.

Tewksbury, Henry. The Cheeses of Vermont. Woodstock, Vt.: Countryman Press, 2002.

Werlin, Linda. The New American Cheese: Profiles of America's Great Cheesemakers and Recipes for Cooking with Cheese. New York: Stewart, Tabori & Chang, 2000.

—Sara Firebaugh

Description	Quantity	Energy (calories)	Carbs (grams)	Protein (grams)	Cholesterol (milligrams)	Weight (grams)	Fat (grams)	Saturated Fat (grams)
American, pasterized processed	1 oz	105	0	6	27	28.35	9	5.6
Swiss, pasterized processed	1 oz	95	1	7	24	28.35	7	4.5

A hand which has very little chance of winning.

SoundPoker Says: Cheese hands are essentially the poor and worthless hands a player receives. Another common name for poor hands is a Garbage hand.

For example, "I've been receiving 8-2 off-suit cheese hands all day."

See Also: Garbage, Hand, Off-Suit, Rank

mod. smiling. (From the practice of forcing people to smile by saying cheese when attempting to photograph them.)  Don't stand there cheezing. What do you want?

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sign description: The heels of both palms are pressing and twisting in a repeated motion.

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verb trans.
verb trans., dated, orig thieves'

To stop, give up, leave off; esp. in phr. cheese it! (1812 —) .
P. G. Wodehouse He had been clearing away the breakfast things, but at the sound of the young master's voice cheesed it courteously (1923). See also big cheese noun, hard cheese noun.

[Origin unknown.]

Previous:	cheaters, cheapskate, cheapo
Next:	cheesecake, cheesed off, cheesy

A food produced industrially by the precipitation of milk protein and capable of acting as a vector of animal disease caused by resistant bacteria but especially by viruses, especially foot-and-mouth disease.

• c. fly — infests cheese but of esthetic importance only. Called also cheese skipper, Piophila casei.
• c. mite — tyroglyphus siro.

For a list of words related to cheese, see:

• Types of Food - cheese: solidified form of ripened curds of soured milk
• Dairy Foods
• Cheese - cheese: solidified form of ripened curds of soured milk
• Baseball - cheese: a particularly fast pitch, usually one at which a batter swings and misses (i.e. has a 'hole' in his bat, like Swiss cheese)
• Anatomy and Physiology of Sex - cheese: Vulgar slang. smegma

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See words rhyming with "cheese."

  See crossword solutions for the clue Cheese.

This entry is from Wikipedia, the leading user-contributed encyclopedia. It may not have been reviewed by professional editors (see full disclaimer)

Dansk (Danish)
1.
n. - ost

idioms:

• cheese board    osteanretning, ostebræt

2.
v. tr. - holde kæft, stikke af

3.
n. - katostens frugt, krydsspole

Nederlands (Dutch)
kaas

Français (French)
1.
n. - fromage

idioms:

• cheese board    plateau à fromage

2.
v. tr. - en avoir marre

3.
n. - gros bonnet (arg)

Deutsch (German)
1.
n. - Käse, Laib Käse

idioms:

• cheese board    Käseplatte

2.
v. - verärgern, enttäuschen, (Sl) aufhören

3.
n. - (Sl) (das) Wahre, (das) Schickliche

Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - τυρί, κεφάλι τυρί
v. - σταματώ, το κόβω, εξοργίζω

idioms:

• cheese board    δίσκος σερβιρίσματος τυριών

Italiano (Italian)
formaggio, cannonata, cosa eccezionale, smetterla

idioms:

• big cheese    pezzo grosso
• cheese board    piatto per formaggi

Português (Portuguese)
n. - queijo (m), golfada (f)
v. - golfar (coloq.), desistir (gír.)

idioms:

• big cheese    pessoa (f) importante
• cheese board    tábua (f) de queijos

Русский (Russian)
сыр, просьба улыбаться когда фотографируют

idioms:

• big cheese    важная шишка
• cheese board    блюдо для сыра

Español (Spanish)
1.
n. - queso

idioms:

• cheese board    tabla de quesos

2.
v. tr. - echar una vomitona (de bebé)

3.
n. - smegma

Svenska (Swedish)
n. - ost
v. - kräkas (sl.), fisa (sl.)

中文（简体）(Chinese (Simplified))
1. 乳酪, 干酪, 扁圆的东西, 干酪状的东西

idioms:

• cheese board    干酪板, 棋盘的设计

2. 停止, 中止

3. 要人, 极好的东西

中文（繁體）(Chinese (Traditional))
1.
n. - 要人, 極好的東西

2.
n. - 乳酪, 乾酪, 扁圓的東西, 乾酪狀的東西

idioms:

• cheese board    乾酪板, 棋盤的設計

3.
v. tr. - 停止, 中止

한국어 (Korean)
1.
n. - 치즈 , 매력적인 연애

2.
v. tr. - 그만두다

3.
n. - 안성맞춤의 것, 중요 인물

日本語 (Japanese)
n. - チーズ

idioms:

• cheese board    チーズボード
• processed cheese    プロセスチーズ

العربيه (Arabic)
‏(الاسم) جبن, جبنه (فعل) يضايق‏

עברית (Hebrew)
n. - ‮גבינה‬
v. tr. - ‮הרגיז‬
n. - ‮אדם חשוב (מדוברת)‬

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