Clement of Alexandria

This article or section is in the middle of an expansion or major restructuring. You are welcome to assist in its construction by editing it as well. If this article or section has not been edited in several days, please remove this template. This article was last edited by He to Hecuba (talk | contribs) 0 seconds ago. (Purge)

Clement of Alexandria
Church Father
Born	c. 150 Possibly Athens
Died	c. 215 Unknown
Honored in	Oriental Orthodox Church, Eastern Catholic Churches, Eastern Orthodox Church, Anglican Communion
Canonized	Pre-congregation
Feast	23 November (Eastern Orthodoxy) 4 December (Eastern Catholicism) 5 December (Episcopal Church, Anglicanism)
Controversy	Regarded as a heretic by Photius.
Catholic cult suppressed	1586

Titus Flavius Clemens (c.150 - c. 215), known as Clement of Alexandria, was a Christian theologian who taught at the Catechetical School of Alexandria. A convert to Christianity, he was an educated man who was familiar with classical Greek philosophy and literature. Clement was influenced by Hellenistic philosophy to a greater extent than any other Christian thinker of his time, and in particular by Plato and the Stoics.^[1] Among his pupils were Origen and Alexander of Jerusalem.

Clement is regarded as a Church Father, and he is venerated as a Saint in Orthodox Christianity, Eastern Catholicism and Anglicanism. He was previously revered in the Roman Catholic Church, but his cult was suppressed in 1586 by Pope Sixtus V due to concerns about his orthodoxy.

Biography

Neither Clement's birthdate or birthplace is known with any degree of certainty. It is conjectured that he was born in around 150.^[2] According to Epiphanius Scholasticus, he was born in Athens, but there is also a tradition of an Alexandrian birth. His parents were pagans, and Clement was a convert to Christianity. In the Protrepticus he displays an extensive knowledge of Greek mythology and mystery religions, which could only have arisen from the practise of his family's religion.^[2]

Having rejected paganism as a young man due to its perceived moral corruption, he travelled in Greece, Asia Minor, Palestine and Egypt. Clement's journeys were primarily a religious undertaking. In Greece, he encountered an Ionian theologian, who has been identified as Athenagoras of Athens; while in the east, he was taught by an Assyrian, sometimes identified with Tatian, and a Jew, who was possibly Theophilus of Caesarea.^[3]

In around 180, Clement reached Alexandria, where he met Pantaenus, who taught at the Catechetical School of Alexandria.^[4] Eusebius suggests that Pantaenus the head of the school, but it is controversial whether the institutions of the school were formalized in this way before the time of Origen.^[5][6] Proponents of a formalized leadership and succession suggest that Clement succeeded Pantaenus as leader of the school, and was succeeded himself by Origen.^[7] Clement studied under Pantaenus, and was ordained to the priesthood by Pope Julian before 189. Otherwise, virtually nothing is known of Clement's life in Alexandria. He may have been married, a conjecture supported by his writings.^[8] A common misconception is that Clement was a vegetarian, but while he argued against gluttony, he was not opposed to the eating of meat.^[9]

During the Severian persecutions of 202-203, Clement left Alexandria. In 211, Alexander of Jerusalem wrote a letter commending him to the Church of Antioch, which may imply that Clement was living in in Cappadocia at that time. The date and location of his death are unknown, but Alexander wrote to Origen in 215 or 216 informing him that Clement was deceased.^[10]

Theological works

Trilogy

Three of Clement's major works have survived in full, and they are collectively referred to as the trilogy:^[11]

• the Protrepticus (Exhortation) - written c. 195.^[12]
• the Paedagogus (Tutor) - written c. 198.^[12]
• the Stromata (Miscellanies) - written c. 198 - c. 203.^[12]

Protrepticus

The Protrepticus is, as its title suggests, an exhortation to the pagans of Greece to adopt Christianity, and within it Clement demonstrates his extensive knowledge of pagan mythology and theology. It is chiefly important due to Clement's exposition of religion as an anthropological phenomenon.^[13] After a short philosophical discussion, it opens with a history of Greek religion in seven stages.^[14] Clement suggests that at first, men mistakenly believed the Sun, the Moon and other heavenly bodies to be gods. The next development was the worship of the products of agriculture, from which he contends the cults of Demeter and Dionysus arose.^[15] Man then paid reverence to revenge, and deified human feelings of love and fear, among others. In the following stage, the poets Hesiod and Homer attempt to enumerate the Gods; Hesiod's Theogony giving the number of twelve. Finally, men proclaimed other men, such as Asclepius and Hercules, deities.^[15] Discussing idolatry, Clement contends that the objects of primitive religion were unshaped wood and stone (such as the Black Stone at the Kaaba), and idols thus arose when such natural items were carved.^[16] Following Plato, Clement is critical of all forms of visual art, suggesting that artworks are but illusions and "deadly toys".^[16]

Clement criticizes Greek paganism in the Protrepticus on the basis that its deities are both false and poor moral examples, and he attacks the mystery religions for their obscurantism and trivial rituals.^[16] In particular, the worshippers of Dionysus are ridiculed for their ritual use of children's toys.^[17] He suggests at some points that the pagan deities are based on humans, but at others that they are misanthropic demons, and he cites several classical sources in support of this second hypothesis.^[18] Clement, like many pre-Nicene fathers, writes favourably about Euhemerus and other rationalist philosophers, on the grounds that they at least saw the flaws in paganism. However, his greatest praise is reserved for Plato, whose apophatic views of God prefigure Christianity.^[19]

The figure of Orpheus is prominent throughout the narrative, and Clement contrasts his song, representing pagan superstition, with the divine Logos of Christ.^[20] According to Clement, through conversion to Christianity alone can man fully participate in the Logos, which is universal truth.^[21]

Paedagogus

This work's title, translatable as "tutor", refers to Christ as the teacher of all mankind, and it features an extended metaphor of Christians as children.^[22] It is not simply instructional : the author intends to show how the Christian should respond to the Love of God authentically.^[23] Clement, following Plato (Republic 4:441), divides life into three elements: character, actions and passions. The first having been dealt with in the Protrepticus, he devotes the Paedagogus to reflections on Christ's role in teaching us to act morally and to control our passions.^[24] Despite its explicitly Christian nature, Clement's work draws on Stoic philosophy and pagan literature ; Homer alone is cited over sixty times in the work.^[25]

Although Christ, like man, is made in the image of God, he alone shares the likeness of God the Father.^[26] Christ is both sinless and apathetic, and thus by striving to imitate Christ, man can achieve salvation. To Clement, sin is involuntary, and thus irrational [αλόγον], removed only through the wisdom of the Logos.^[27] God's guidance of us away from sin is thus a manifestation of God's universal Love of mankind. The word play on λόγος and αλόγον is characteristic of Clement's writing, and may be rooted in the Epicurean belief that relationships between words are deeply reflective of relationships between the objects they signify.^[28]

Clement argues for the absolute equality of sexes, on the grounds that salvation is extended to all of mankind equally.^[29] Unusually, he suggests that Christ is neither male or female, and that God the Father has both male and female aspects: the eucharist is described as milk from the breast (Christ) of the Father.^[30][31] He is supportive of women playing an active role in the leadership of the church, and provides a list of women he considers inspirational, which includes both Biblical and Classical Greek figures. It has been suggested that Clement's progressive views on gender as set out in the Paedagogus were influenced by Gnosticism.^[30] However, later in the work, he argues against the Gnostics that faith, not esoteric knowledge [γνῶσις], is required for salvation. According to Clement, it is through faith in Christ that we are enlightened and come to know God.^[32]

In the second book, Clement provides practical rules on living a Christian life. He argues against overindulgence in food and in favour of good table manners.^[33] While prohibiting drunkenness, he promotes the drinking of alcohol in moderation following 1 Timothy 5:23.^[33] Clement argues for a simple way of life in accordance with the innate simplicity of Christian monotheism. He condemns elaborate and expensive furnishings and clothing, and argues against overly passionate music and perfumes. But Clement does not believe in the abandoning of worldly pleasures and argues that the Christian should be able to express his joy in God's creation through gaiety and partying.^[34] He opposes the wearing of garlands, because the picking of the flowers ultimately kills a beautiful creation of God, and the garland resembles the crown of thorns.^[35] Clement treats sex at some length. He argues that both promiscuity and sexual abstinence are unnatural, and that the main goal of human sexuality is procreation.^[36] Homosexuality, prostitution, concubinage, adultery and coitus with pregnant women should all be avoided as they will not act towards the generation of legitimate offspring.^[37]

The third book continues along a similar vein, condemning cosmetics on the grounds that it is our souls, not our bodies, that we should seek to beautify.^[38] Clement also opposes the dying of men's hair and male depilation as effeminacy. He advises choosing ones company carefully, to avoid being corrupted by immoral people, and while arguing that material wealth is no sin in itself, it is too likely to distract one from the infinitely more important spiritual wealth which is found in Christ.^[39] The work finishes with selections of scripture supporting Clement's argument, and following a prayer, the lyrics of a hymn.^[40]

Stromata

The contents of the Stromata, as its title suggests, are miscellaneous. Its place in the trilogy is disputed - Clement initially intended to write the Didasculus, a work which would complement the practical guidance of the Paedagogus with a more intellectual schooling in theology.^[41]The Stromata is less systematic and ordered than Clement's other works, and it has been theorized by André Méhat that it was intended for a limited, esoteric readership.^[42] Although Eusebius wrote of eight books of the work, only seven undoubtably survive. Photius, writing in the 9th century, found various text appended to manuscripts of the seven canonical books, which lead Daniel Heinsius to suggest that the original eighth book is lost, and he identified the text purported to be from the eighth book as fragments of the Hypopotoses.^[43]

The first book starts on the topic of Greek philosophy. Consistent with his other writing, Clement affirms that philosophy had a propaedeutic role for the Greek, similar to the function of the law for the Jews.^[44] He then embarks on a discussion of the origins of Greek culture and technology, arguing that most of the important figures in the Greek world were foreigners, and (erroneously) that Jewish culture was the most significant influence on Greece.^[45] In an attempt to demonstrate the primacy of Moses, Clement gives an extended chronology of the world, wherein he dates the birth of Christ to 25 April or May, 4-2 B.C., and the creation of the world to 5592 B.C. The books ends with a discussion on the origin of languages and the possibility of a Jewish influence on Plato.^[46]

The second book is largely devoted to the respective roles of faith and philosophical argument. Clement contends that while both are important, the fear of God is foremost, because through faith one receives divine wisdom.^[47] To Clement, scripture is an innately true primitive philosophy which is complemented by human reason through the Logos.^[48] Faith is voluntary, and the decision to believe is a crucial fundamental step in becoming closer to God.^[49][50] It is never irrational, as it is founded on the knowledge of the truth of the Logos, but all knowledge proceeds from faith, as first principles are unprovable outside a systematic structure.^[51]

The third book covers asceticism. He discusses marriage, which is treated similarly in the Paedagogus. Clement rejects the Gnostic opposition to marriage, arguing that only men who are uninterested in women should remain celibate, and that sex is a positive good if performed within marriage for the purposes of procreation.^[52] He argues against the idea that Christians should reject their family for an ascetic life, which stems from Luke 14:25-27, contending that Jesus would not have contradicted the precept to "Honour thy Father and thy Mother" (Exodus 20:12), one of the Ten Commandments.^[53] Clement concludes that asceticism will only be rewarded if the motivation is Christian in nature, and thus the asceticism of non-Christians such as the gymnosophists is pointless.^[54][55]

Clement begins the fourth book with a belated explanation of the disorganised nature of the work, and gives a brief description of his aims for the remaining three or four books.^[56] The fourth book focuses on martyrdom. Clement condemns Christians who actively seek out a martyr's death, arguing that they do not have sufficient respect for God's gift of life.^[57] He is ambivalent whether any believing Christian can become a martyr by virtue of the manner of their death, or whether martyrdom is reserved for those who have lived exceptional lives.^[58]

Other works

Besides the great trilogy, the only complete work preserved is the treatise "Who is the Rich Man that Shall Be Saved?" based on Mark 10:17-31, and laying down the principle that not the possession of riches but their misuse is to be condemned. There are extant a few fragments of the treatise on the Passover, against the Quartodecimanism position of Melito of Sardis, and only a single passage from the "Ecclesiastical Canon" against the Judaizers. Several other works are known only by their titles. His work Hypotyposes survives only in fragments.

Much of Clement's work has been published in recent years in the collection Sources Chrétiennes, in particular by Alain Le Boulluec.

Clement's "Shepherd of Tender Youth" may be the earliest Christian hymn with a named author.^[59]

References

1. ^ Oulter (1940), p. 217
2. ^ ^{a b} Ferguson (1974), p. 13
3. ^ Ferguson (1974), p. 14
4. ^ Henny (2006), p. 56
5. ^ Ferguson (1974), p. 15
6. ^ Henny (2006), p. 56-9
7. ^ Itter (2009), p. 9
8. ^ Ferguson (1974), p. 16
9. ^ Young (1999), p. 129
10. ^ Itter (2009), p. 7
11. ^ Osborn (2008), p. 5
12. ^ ^{a b c} Ferguson (1974), p. 17
13. ^ Droge (1989), p. 138
14. ^ Droge (1989), p. 130
15. ^ ^{a b} Droge (1989), p. 131
16. ^ ^{a b c} Ferguson (1974), p. 48
17. ^ Burrus (2011), p. 101
18. ^ Ferguson (1974), p. 50
19. ^ Ferguson (1974), pp. 55-6
20. ^ de Jáuregui (2010), p. 132
21. ^ Sharkey (2009), p. 159
22. ^ Ferguson (1974), p. 76
23. ^ Osborn (2008), p. 244
24. ^ Ferguson (1974), p. 69
25. ^ Irvine (2006), p. 164
26. ^ Ogliari (2003), p. 200
27. ^ Ferguson (1974), p. 71
28. ^ Ferguson (1974), p. 73
29. ^ Ferguson (1974), p. 72
30. ^ ^{a b} Ma (2004), p. 184
31. ^ Berger (2011), pp. 74-5
32. ^ Ferguson (1974), p. 75
33. ^ ^{a b} Ferguson (1974), p. 80
34. ^ Ferguson (1974), p. 82
35. ^ Ferguson (1974), p. 85
36. ^ Kochuthara (2007) , p. 145
37. ^ Ferguson (1974), p. 87
38. ^ Ferguson (1974), p. 91
39. ^ Ferguson (1974), p. 94
40. ^ Murphy (1941), p. 32
41. ^ Ferguson (1974), p. 106
42. ^ Osborn (2008), p. 8
43. ^ Kaye (1835), p. 221
44. ^ Ferguson (1974), pp. 108-9
45. ^ Ferguson (1974), pp. 113-6
46. ^ Ferguson (1974), pp. 117-9
47. ^ Osborn (1994), p. 3
48. ^ Osborn (1994), p. 4
49. ^ Ferguson (1974), p. 121
50. ^ Osborn (1994), p. 7
51. ^ Osborn (1994), pp. 11-12
52. ^ Heid (2000), p. 65
53. ^ Clark (1999), p. 198
54. ^ Clark (1999), p. 17
55. ^ Burrus (2011), p. 30
56. ^ Ferguson (1974), p. 133
57. ^ Verhey (2011), p. 350
58. ^ Burrus (2011), p. 82
59. ^ CyberHymnal

Bibliography

• Berger, Teresa (2011). Gender Differences and the Making of Liturgical History: Lifting a Veil on Liturgy's Past. Teresa Berger. London: Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 9781409426981. 
• Burrus, Virginia (2010). Late Ancient Christianity. Philadelphia: Fortress Press. ISBN 9780800697204. 
• Clark, Elizabeth Ann (1999). Reading renunciation: asceticism and Scripture in early Christianity. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691005126. 
• Droge, Arthur J. (1989). Homer or Moses?: early Christian interpretations of the history of culture. Tuebingen: Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 9783161453540. 
• Ferguson, John (1974). Clement of Alexandria. New York: Ardent Media. ISBN 9780805722314. 
• Hägg, Henny Fiskå (2006). Clement of Alexandria and the beginnings of Christian apophaticism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199288083. 
• Heid, Stefan (2000). Celibacy in the early Church: the beginnings of a discipline of obligatory continence for clerics in East and West. San Fransisco: Ignatius Press. ISBN 9780898708004. 
• Itter, Andrew C. (2009). Esoteric teaching in the Stromateis of Clement of Alexandria. Leiden: BRILL. ISBN 9789004174825. 
• Irvine, Martin (2006). The Making of Textual Culture: 'Grammatica' and Literary Theory 350-1100. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521031998. 
• de Jáuregui, Miguel Herrero (2010). Orphism and Christianity in late antiquity. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 9783110206333. 
• Karavites, Peter (1999). Evil, freedom, and the road to perfection in Clement of Alexandria. Ledien: BRILL. ISBN 9789004112384. 
• Kaye, John (1835). Some account of the writings and opinions of Clement of Alexandria. London: J.G. & F. Rivington. 
• Kochuthara, Shaji George (2007). The concept of sexual pleasure in the Catholic moral tradition. Rome: Gregorian University Press. ISBN 9788878391000. 
• Ma, Wonsuk (ed.) (2004). The spirit and spirituality: essays in honour of Russell P. Spittler, Volume 4. New York: Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN 9780826471628. 
• Murphy, Mable Gant (1941). Nature allusions in the works of Clement of Alexandria. Washington D.C.: The Catholic University of America Press. 
• Ogliari, Donato (2003). Gratia et certamen: the relationship between grace and free will in the discussion of Augustine with the so-called semipelagians. Leuven: Peeters Publishers. ISBN 9789042913516. 
• Outler, Albert C. (July 1940). "The "Platonism" of Clement of Alexandria". The Journal of Religion 20 (3): 217-240. \
• Osborn, Eric (March 1994). "Arguments for Faith in Clement of Alexandria". Vigiliae Christianae 48 (1): 1-24. 
• Osborn, Eric (2008). Clement of Alexandria. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521090810. 
• Sharkey, Michael (ed.) (2009). International Theological Commission, Volume 2. San Fransisco: Ignatius Press. ISBN 9781586172268. 
• Verhey, Allen (2011). The Christian Art of Dying: Learning from Jesus. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. ISBN 9780802866721. 
• Young, Richard A. (1999). Is God a vegetarian?: Christianity, vegetarianism, and animal rights. Chicago: Open Court Publishing. ISBN 9780812693935. 

Sources

• This article includes text from the Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religion, which is in the public domain.

External links

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Clement of Alexandria

Wikisource has original works written by or about: Clement of Alexandria

• "Saint Clement of Alexandria." Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 2011. Web. 07 Jun. 2011.
• "The Stromata, or Miscellenaries", by Clement of Alexandria
• Reinhold Koltz, Titi Flaui Clementis Alexandrini opera omnia (E.B. Schwickerti, Lipsiae 1831), Vol. 1, 2, 3, and 4.
• "The Paedagogus", by Clement of Alexandria
• "Clement of Alexandria" by Francis P. Havey, in the Catholic Encyclopedia, 1908.
• Clement's Protrepticus
• Clement's Stromateis
• Clement's Paedagogus
• Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Graeca with analytical indexes and concordances
• Hypotyposes