This article is about the chemical reaction combustion. For the video post-production software, see
Combustion (software).
Flame resulting from the combustion (burning) of a
fuel
Combustion or burning is a complex sequence of exothermic chemical reactions
between a fuel and an oxidant accompanied by the
production of heat or both heat and light in the form of either a glow or flames.
Direct combustion by atmospheric oxygen is a reaction mediated by radical
intermediates. The conditions for radical production are naturally produced by thermal
runaway, where the heat generated by combustion is necessary to maintain the high temperature necessary for radical
production.
In a complete combustion reaction, a compound reacts with an oxidizing element, such as oxygen
or fluorine, and the products are compounds of each element in the fuel with the oxidizing
element. For example:
- CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
- CH2S + 6F2 → CF4 + 2HF + SF6
A simpler example can be seen in the combustion of hydrogen and oxygen, which is a commonly used reaction in rocket engines:
- 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O + heat
The result is simply water vapor.
In the large majority of the real world uses of combustion, the oxygen (O2) oxidant is obtained from the ambient
air and the resultant flue gas from the combustion will contain nitrogen:
- CH4 + 2O2 + 7.52N2 → CO2 + 2H2O + 7.52N2 + heat
As can be seen, when air is the source of the oxygen, nitrogen is by far the largest part of the resultant flue gas.
In reality, combustion processes are never perfect or complete. In flue gases from combustion of carbon (as in coal combustion) or carbon compounds (as in combustion of hydrocarbons, wood etc.) both unburned carbon (as soot) and carbon compounds (CO and others) will be present. Also, when air is the oxidant, some nitrogen will be oxidized to
various, mostly harmful, nitrogen oxides (NOx).
Types
Rapid
Rapid combustion is a form of combustion in which large amounts of heat and light energy are
released, which often results in a fire. This is used in a form of machinery such as
internal combustion engines and in thermobaric weapons.
Combustion is double replacement reaction. On the other hand a chemical reaction
is single replacement reaction.
Slow
Slow combustion is a form of combustion which takes place at low temperatures. Respiration is an example of slow combustion.
Complete
In complete combustion, the reactant will burn in oxygen, producing a limited number of products. When a hydrocarbon burns in oxygen, the reaction will only yield carbon dioxide and water. When a hydrocarbon or
any fuel burns in air, the combustion products will also include nitrogen. When elements such as carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, and
iron are burned, they will yield the most common oxides. Carbon will yield carbon dioxide. Nitrogen will yield nitrogen dioxide. Sulfur will yield sulfur dioxide. Iron will
yield iron(III) oxide. It should be noted that complete combustion is almost impossible
to achieve. In reality, as actual combustion reactions come to equilibrium, a wide
variety of major and minor species will be present. For example, the combustion of methane in air will yield, in addition to the
major products of carbon dioxide and water, the minor product carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides, which are products of a side
reaction (oxidation of nitrogen).
Turbulent
Turbulent combustion is a combustion characterized by turbulent flows. It is the most used for industrial application (e.g.
gas turbines, diesel engines, etc.) because the turbulence helps the mixing process between the fuel and oxidizer.
Incomplete
Incomplete combustion occurs when there isn't enough oxygen to allow the fuel (usually a hydrocarbon) to react completely with
the oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water, also when the combustion is quenched by a heat sink such as a solid surface or
flame trap. When a hydrocarbon burns in air, the reaction will yield carbon dioxide,
water, carbon monoxide, pure carbon (soot or ash) and various other compounds such as
nitrogen oxides. Incomplete combustion is much more common and will produce large amounts
of byproducts, and in the case of burning fuel in automobiles, these byproducts can be quite unhealthy and damaging to the
environment.
The quality of combustion can be improved by design of combustion devices, such as burners
and internal combustion engines. Further improvements are achievable by
catalytic after-burning devices (such as catalytic
converters) or by the simple partial return of the exhaust gases into the combustion process. Such devices are required by
environmental legislation for cars in most countries, and may be necessary in large combustion
devices, such as thermal power plants, to reach legal emission standards.
Smoldering
Smouldering combustion is a flameless form of combustion, deriving its heat from
heterogeneous reactions occurring on the surface of a solid fuel when heated in an oxidizing environment. The fundamental
difference between smouldering and flaming combustion is that in smouldering, the oxidation of the reactant species occurs on the
surface of the solid rather than in the gas phase. The characteristic temperature and heat released during smoldering are low
compared to those in the flaming combustion of a solid. Typical values in smouldering are around 600 °C for the peak temperature
and 5 kJ/g-O2 for the heat released; typical values during flaming are around 1500 °C and 13 kJ/g-O2
respectively. These characteristics cause smoulder to propagate at low velocities, typically around 0.1 mm/s, which is about two
orders of magnitude lower than the velocity of flame spread over a solid. In spite of its weak combustion characteristics,
smouldering is a significant fire hazard.
Combustion with other oxidants
Oxygen can be assumed as the oxidant when talking about combustion, but other oxidants exist.
Nitrous oxide is used in rockets and in motorsport; it produces oxygen at over 1300 C.
Fluorine, another oxidizing element, can produce a combustion reaction, to produce fluorinated products (rather than oxides). For
example, mixtures of gaseous fluorine and methane are
explosive, just like mixtures of oxygen and methane. Chlorine trifluoride is a
strong fluorinating agent that ignites fuels more readily than oxygen.
Chemical equation
Generally, the chemical equation for stoichiometric burning of hydrocarbon in oxygen is as follows:

For example, the burning of propane is:

The simple word equation for the combustion of a hydrocarbon in oxygen is:

If the combustion takes place using air as the oxygen source, the nitrogen can be added to the equation, although it does not
react, to show the composition of the flue gas:

For example, the burning of propane is:

The simple word equation for the combustion of a hydrocarbon in air is:

Nitrogen may also oxidize when there is an excess of oxygen. The reaction is thermodynamically favored only at high
temperatures. Diesel engines are run with an excess of oxygen to combust small particles
that tend to form with only a stoichiometric amount of oxygen, necessarily producing nitrogen oxide emissions. Both the United
States and European Union are planning to impose limits to nitrogen oxide emissions, which necessitate the use of a special
catalytic converter or treatment of the exhaust with urea.
Fuels
Liquid fuels
Combustion of a liquid fuel in an oxidizing atmosphere actually happens in the gas phase. It is the vapour that burns, not the
liquid. Therefore, a liquid will normally catch fire only above a certain temperature, its flash
point. The flash point of a liquid fuel is the lowest temperature at which it can form an ignitable mix with air. It is
also the minimum temperature at which there is enough evaporated fuel in the air to start combustion.
Solid fuels
The act of combustion consists of three relatively distinct but overlapping phases:
- Preheating phase, when the unburned fuel is heated up to its flash point and then
fire point. Flammable gases start being evolved in a process similar to dry distillation.
- Distillation phase or gaseous phase, when the mix of evolved flammable gases with oxygen is ignited. Energy is
produced in the form of heat and light. Flames are often visible. Heat transfer
from the combustion to the solid maintains the evolution of flammable vapours.
- Charcoal phase or solid phase, when the output of flammable gases from the material is too low for persistent
presence of flame and the charred fuel does not burn rapidly anymore but just glows and later
only smoulders.
Temperature
Assuming perfect combustion conditions, such as complete combustion under adiabatic
conditions (i.e., no heat loss or gain), the adiabatic combustion temperature can be determined. The formula that yields this
temperature is based on the first law of thermodynamics and takes note of
the fact that the heat of combustion is used entirely for heating the fuel, the
combustion air or oxygen, and the combustion product gases (commonly referred to as the flue
gas).
In the case of fossil fuels burnt in air, the combustion temperature depends on
The adiabatic combustion temperature (also known as the adiabatic flame
temperature) increases for higher heating values and inlet air and fuel temperatures and for stoichiometric air ratios
approaching one.
Most commonly, the adiabatic combustion temperatures for coals are around 2200 °C (for inlet air and fuel at ambient
temperatures and for λ = 1.0), around 2150 °C for oil and 2000 °C for natural gas.
In industrial fired heaters, power plant steam
generators, and large gas-fired turbines, the more common way of expressing the usage of
more than the stoichiometric combustion air is percent excess combustion air. For
example, excess combustion air of 15 percent means that 15 percent more than the required stoichiometric air is being used.
Combustion analysis
This section provides a combustion analysis for a few typical fuels (carbon, hydrogen, sulfur, coal, oil and gas) when the
fuel reacts with air at stoichiometric conditions. For this analysis, both fuel and air are taken to be at inlet combustion
conditions of 298 K and 1 atm of absolute pressure, and combustion is taken to be complete and with no heat loss.
The analysis also requires knowing the physical properties for the reactants and combustion products, as well as knowing the
composition of both the fuel and oxidant compositions.
For solid and liquid type fuels, the fuel compositions is given on weight fraction basis. In this analysis, CH4 is
the only gas fuel considered. In order to keep the combustion analysis simple and straightforward, the CH4 composition
is also provided on the weight fraction basis. Oxidant composition is usually given on the mole or volume basis.
Table 1 provides some fuel compositions on a weight fraction basis:
Table 1: Fuel Composition
(weight fraction basis)
| Fuel |
C |
H |
S |
N |
O |
H2O |
CH4 |
| Carbon |
1.000 |
0.000 |
0.000 |
0.000 |
0.000 |
0.000 |
- |
| Hydrogen |
0.000 |
1.000 |
0.000 |
0.000 |
0.000 |
0.000 |
- |
| Sulfur |
0.000 |
0.000 |
1.000 |
0.000 |
0.000 |
0.000 |
- |
| Coal |
0.780 |
0.050 |
0.030 |
0.040 |
0.080 |
0.020 |
- |
| Oil |
0.860 |
0.140 |
0.000 |
0.000 |
0.000 |
0.000 |
- |
| Fuel Gas |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
1.000 |
Table 2 provides the composition of air:
Table 2: Oxidant/Air Composition
| Oxidant |
N
kg/kg |
O
kg/kg |
N2
mol/mol |
O2
mol/mol |
| Air |
0.767 |
0.233 |
0.790 |
0.210 |
Again, in this combustion analysis, only the stoichiometric combustion is analyzed. Results of such analysis are provided,
including the composition of the combustion gas products on a weight and mole/volume basis, the adiabatic flame temperature, the
stoichiometric ratio and the fuel's higher heating value (HHV).
Table 3 provides the composition of the combustion gas products on a weight fraction basis:
Table 3: Combustion Products
(weight fraction basis)
| Fuel |
CO2 |
H2O |
SO2 |
N2 |
O2 |
| Carbon |
0.295 |
0.000 |
0.000 |
0.705 |
0.000 |
| Hydrogen |
0.000 |
0.255 |
0.000 |
0.745 |
0.000 |
| Sulfur |
0.000 |
0.000 |
0.378 |
0.622 |
0.000 |
| Coal |
0.249 |
0.041 |
0.005 |
0.705 |
0.000 |
| Oil |
0.203 |
0.079 |
0.000 |
0.718 |
0.000 |
| Fuel Gas |
0.151 |
0.124 |
0.000 |
0.725 |
0.000 |
Table 4 provides the composition of the combustion gas products on a mole fraction basis (which is the same as a volume
basis):
Table 4: Combustion Products
(mole fraction basis)
| Fuel |
CO2 |
H2O |
SO2 |
N2 |
O2 |
| Carbon |
0.210 |
0.000 |
0.000 |
0.790 |
0.000 |
| Hydrogen |
0.000 |
0.347 |
0.000 |
0.653 |
0.000 |
| Sulfur |
0.000 |
0.000 |
0.210 |
0.789 |
0.000 |
| Coal |
0.170 |
0.068 |
0.002 |
0.759 |
0.000 |
| Oil |
0.133 |
0.127 |
0.000 |
0.740 |
0.000 |
| Fuel Gas |
0.095 |
0.190 |
0.000 |
0.715 |
0.000 |
When considering coal, oil and gas as the fuel, coal has the largest amount of CO2 in the combustion gas products
on both a weight and mole basis.
Table 5 provides the combustion adiabatic flame temperature, stoichiometric ratio and the fuel's higher heating value:
Table 5: Other Fuel Characteristics
| Fuel |
Adiabatic
Flame Temperature (K) |
Stoichiometric Ratio
(see note below) |
HHV (kJ/kg) |
| Carbon |
2,460 |
11.444 |
32,779.8 |
| Hydrogen |
2,525 |
34.333 |
141,866.8 |
| Sulfur (solid) |
1,972 |
4.292 |
9,261.3 |
| Coal |
2,484 |
10.487 |
32,937.9 |
| Oil |
2,484 |
14.580 |
47,630.0 |
| Fuel Gas |
2,327 |
17.167 |
50,151.2 |
| Note: Stoichiometric ratio is the weight of air required for complete combustion of a unit weight of
fuel. Thus, 1 kg of carbon fuel requires 11.444 kg of air for complete, ideal combustion. |
Instabilities
Combustion instabilities are typically violent pressure oscillations in a combustion chamber. These pressure oscillations can
be as high as 180dB, and long term exposure to these cyclic pressure and thermal loads reduces the life of engine components. In
rockets, such as the F1 used in the Saturn V program, instabilities led to massive damage of the combustion chamber and
surrounding components. This problem was solved by re-designing the fuel injector. In liquid jet engines the droplet size and
distribution can be used to attenuate the instabilities. Combustion instabilities are a major concern in ground-based gas turbine
engines because of NOx emissions. The tendency is to run lean, an equivalence ratio less than 1, to reduce the combustion
temperature and thus reduce the NOx emissions; however, running the combustor lean makes it very susceptible to combustion
instabilities.
The Rayleigh Criterion is the basis for analysis of thermoacoustic combustion
instabilities and is evaluated using the Rayleigh Index over one cycle of instability.[citation needed]

When the heat release oscillations are in phase with the pressure oscillations the Rayleigh Index is positive and the
magnitude of the thermoacoustic instability increases. Consecutively if the Rayleigh Index is negative then thermoacoustic
damping occurs. The Rayleigh Criterion implies that a thermoacoustic instability can be optimally controlled by having heat
release oscillations 180 degrees out of phase with pressure oscillations at the same frequency. This minimizes the Rayleigh
Index.[citation needed]
See also
Related concepts
|
Machines and equipment
|
Measurement techniques
Social applications and issues
|
External links
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