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Dictionary:

community

  (kə-myū'nĭ-tē) pronunciation
n., pl. -ties.
    1. A group of people living in the same locality and under the same government.
    2. The district or locality in which such a group lives.
    1. A group of people having common interests: the scientific community; the international business community.
    2. A group viewed as forming a distinct segment of society: the gay community; the community of color.
    1. Similarity or identity: a community of interests.
    2. Sharing, participation, and fellowship.
  4. Society as a whole; the public.
  5. Ecology.
    1. A group of plants and animals living and interacting with one another in a specific region under relatively similar environmental conditions.
    2. The region occupied by a group of interacting organisms.

[Middle English communite, citizenry, from Old French, from Latin commūnitās, fellowship, from commūnis, common. See common.]


 
 
Sci-Tech Encyclopedia: Ecological communities

Assemblages of living organisms that occur together in an area. The nature of the forces that knit these assemblages into organized systems and those properties of assemblages that manifest this organization have been topics of intense debate among ecologists since the beginning of the twentieth century. On the one hand, there are those who view a community as simply consisting of species with similar physical requirements, such as temperature, soil type, or light regime. The similarity of requirements dictates that these species be found together, but interactions between the species are of secondary importance and the level of organization is low. On the other hand, there are those who conceive of the community as a highly organized, holistic entity, with species inextricably and complexly linked to one another and to the physical environment, so that characteristic patterns recur, and properties arise that one can neither understand nor predict from a knowledge of the component species. In this view, the ecosystem (physical environment plus its community) is as well organized as a living organism, and constitutes a superorganism. Between these extremes are those who perceive some community organization but not nearly enough to invoke images of holistic superorganisms. See also Ecosystem.

Every community comprises a given group of species, and their number and identities are distinguishing traits. Most communities are so large that it is not possible to enumerate all species; microorganisms and small invertebrates are especially difficult to census. However, particularly in small, well-bounded sites such as lakes or islands, one can find all the most common species and estimate their relative abundances. The number of species is known as species richness, while species diversity refers to various statistics based on the relative numbers of individuals of each species in addition to the number of species. The rationale for such a diversity measure is that some communities have many species, but most species are rare and almost all the individuals (or biomass) in such a community can be attributed to just a few species. Such a community is not diverse in the usual sense of the word. Patterns of species diversity abound in the ecological literature; for example, pollution often effects a decrease in species diversity.

The main patterns of species richness that have been detected are area and isolation effects, successional gradients, and latitudinal gradients. Larger sites tend to have more species than do small ones, and isolated communities (such as those on oceanic islands) tend to have fewer species than do less isolated ones of equal size. Later communities in a temporal succession tend to have more species than do earlier ones, except that the last (climax) community often has fewer species than the immediately preceding one. Tropical communities tend to be very species-rich, while those in arctic climates tend to be species-poor. This observation conforms to a larger but less precise rule that communities in particularly stressful environments tend to have few species.

Communities are usually denoted by the presence of species, known as dominants, that contain a large fraction of the community's biomass, or account for a large fraction of a community's productivity. Dominants are usually plants. Determining whether communities at two sites are truly representatives of the “same” community requires knowledge of more than just the dominants, however. “Characteristic” species, which are always found in combination with certain other species, are useful in deciding whether two communities are of the same type, though the designation of “same” is arbitrary, just as is the designation of “dominant” or “characteristic.”

Communities often do not have clear spatial boundaries. Occasionally, very sharp limits to a physical environmental condition impose similarly sharp limits on a community. For example, serpentine soils are found sharply delimited from adjacent soils in many areas, and have mineral concentrations strikingly different from those of the neighboring soils. Thus they support plant species that are very different from those found in nearby nonserpentine areas, and these different plant species support animal species partially different from those of adjacent areas.

Here two different communities are sharply bounded from each other. Usually, however, communities grade into one another more gradually, through a broad intermediate region (an ecotone) that includes elements of both of the adjacent communities, and sometimes other species as well that are not found in either adjacent community. See also Ecotone.

The environment created by the dominant species, by their effects on temperature, light, humidity, and other physical factors, and by their biotic effects, such as allelopathy and competition, may entrain some other species so that these other species' spatial boundaries coincide with those of the dominants. See also Physiological ecology (plant); Population ecology.

More or less distinct communities tend to follow one another in rather stylized order. As with recognition of spatial boundaries, recognition of temporal boundaries of adjacent communities within a sere (a temporary community during a successional sequence at a site) is partly a function of the expectations that an observer brings to the endeavor. Those who view communities as superorganisms are inclined to see sharp temporal and spatial boundaries, and the perception that one community does not gradually become another community over an extended period of time confirms the impression that communities are highly organized entities, not random collections of species that happen to share physical requirements. However, this superorganismic conception of succession has been replaced by an individualistic succession. Data on which species are present at different times during a succession show that there is not abrupt wholesale extinction of most members of a community and concurrent simultaneous colonization by most species of the next community. Rather, most species within a community colonize at different times, and as the community is replaced most species drop out at different times. That succession is primarily an individualistic process does not mean that there are not characteristic changes in community properties as most successions proceed. Species richness usually increases through most of the succession, for example, and stratification becomes more highly organized and well defined. A number of patterns are manifest in aspects of energy flow and nutrient cycling. See also Ecological succession.

Living organisms are characterized not only by spatial and temporal structure but by an apparent purpose or activity termed teleonomy. In the first place, the various species within a community have different trophic relationships with one another. One species may eat another, or be eaten by another. A species may be a decomposer, living on dead tissue of one or more other species. Some species are omnivores, eating many kinds of food; others are more specialized, eating only plants or only animals, or even just one other species. These trophic relationships unite the species in a community into a common endeavor, the transmission of energy through the community. This energy flow is analogous to an organism's mobilization and transmission of energy from the food it eats.

By virtue of differing rates of photosynthesis by the dominant plants, different communities have different primary productivities. Tropical forests are generally most productive, while extreme environments such as desert or alpine conditions harbor rather unproductive communities. Agricultural communities are intermediate. Algal communities in estuaries are the most productive marine communities, while open ocean communities are usually far less productive. The efficiency with which various animals ingest and assimilate the plants and the structure of the trophic web determine the secondary productivity (production of organic matter by animals) of a community. Marine secondary productivity generally exceeds that of terrestrial communities. See also Agroecosystem; Biological productivity.

A final property that any organism must have is the ability to reproduce itself. Communities may be seen as possessing this property, though the sense in which they do so does not support the superorganism metaphor. A climax community reproduces itself through time simply by virtue of the reproduction of its constituent species, and may also be seen as reproducing itself in space by virtue of the propagules that its species transmit to less mature communities. For example, when a climax forest abuts a cutover field, if no disturbance ensues, the field undergoes succession and eventually becomes a replica of the adjacent forest. Both temporally and spatially, then, community reproduction is a collective rather than an emergent property, deriving directly from the reproductive activities of the component species. See also Altitudinal vegetation zones; Bog; Chaparral; Desert; Ecology; Grassland ecosystem; Mangrove; Muskeg; Paramo; Puna.

 
Thesaurus: community

noun

    Persons as an organized body: people, public, society. See specific/general.

 
Antonyms: community

n

Definition: agreement, similarity
Antonyms: disagreement, dissimilarity

 
Geography Dictionary: community

1. In ecology, a naturally occurring, non-random, collection of plant and animal life within a specified environment. The community is named after the physical environment, such as a freshwater lake community, or after the dominant species, such as an oak woodland community.

2. In human geography, an interacting group of people living in the same territory: town, village, suburb, or neighbourhood. This term is used in different ways: some see communities as having shared modes of thought and expression, and may use the term in a non-territorial sense, as in ‘the gay community’. Some social scientists have argued that rural communities are gemeinschaft communities, contrasting with urban, gesellschaft communities, but later studies have claimed that, while urban districts may not have all the positive features of rural societies, they do have beneficial features. Traditionally, social geographers have seen communities as combining human alliances with local social systems in specifically defined locations, but time-space compression and the ‘virtual communities’ of the world-wide web have decoupled this link.

 
Political Dictionary: community

A group of people who are socially related by virtue of identity with a particular location. The nature of the social relationship and location are, however, ideologically contested. Traditional conservative thought emphasizes the idea that community is based upon commonality of origin—the blood, kinship, and historic ties—of a people living in a particular location. Village localities as much as national groups are considered to cohere on such a basis. As in such terms as the ‘Jewish community’, commonality of origin may also have been derived in another location or by reference to a homeland. Socialist thought identifies conservative versions of community as hegemonic devices to bind both the haves and have-nots together in capitalist society, preventing them from seeing their real clash of economic interests and thus averting social conflict. Reformist socialists seeking to attain this goal may construct community on the basis of enjoining wealthier locations with poorer ones to effect redistribution of wealth and create the desired social relations at the local level.

Conservatives and socialists may stress different bases for the existence of community, but both identify the social relations inherent in community as something greater than the concerns and interests of each individual living in it added together, and as providing the basis for the longevity of a community. Liberals are reluctant to conceptualize community on the same elevated basis because of their commitment to individual freedom. Instead they see community as based on the freely chosen associations of individuals with common interests and needs. Such associations may be strongly locationally based. For example, ‘financial community’ suggests both a group of people who have common work-related interests and needs and a particular work location such as the City of London or Wall Street. Similarly, ‘travel to work area’ suggests the locational setting of motorists, commuters, and shoppers who have shared needs, and would be deemed to be a suitable basis for a community. However, given that they are based upon freely chosen association and the individual imperatives which drive employment and economic and social change, such communities may change both in nature and in location. For example, deregulation and information technology have changed the organization of financial markets, and suburbanization and the development of transport infrastructure have changed travel to work areas. In the practical domain, however, all too often ‘community’ is given no explicit meaning and used instead for the general sympathy it attracts as a legitimizing concept for any political programme.

— Jonathan Bradbury

 
Architecture: community

A group of people having common rights, privileges, or interests, or living in the same place under the same laws and regulations.

 
Archaeology Dictionary: community

[De]

A general term in archaeology that is applied to the tangible remains of a group of people who together occupy a settlement or region at any one particular period.
 
Sports Science and Medicine: community

1. Set of social relationships existing within a geographically defined area, or the area itself.

2. Relationships that exist on an abstract ideological or social level; for example, a community of marathon runners.

 
Veterinary Dictionary: community

A group of individuals living in an area, having a common interest, or belonging to the same organization.

  • c. adoption curve — graphic display of the rate at which persons in a community adopt new techniques and strategies.
 
Word Tutor: community
pronunciation

IN BRIEF: A group of people living near one another or in a social relationship.

pronunciation Frances loved the neighbors in her new community.

 
Quotes About: Communities

Quotes:

"I grew up in dirt-poor hillbilly country. We lived this dry-below-the-waist kind of scene. If you were a sensual woman you were in league with that which is un-Christlike. Where I come from, a cockroach is a roach, and a cockerel is a rooster because they can't bring themselves to say cock." - Tori Amos

"In communities where men build ships for their own sons to fish or fight from, quality is never a problem" - J. A. Dever

"The community of living is the carriage of the Lord." - Hasidic Proverb

"In order to stand well in the eyes of the community, it is necessary to come up to a certain, somewhat indefinite, conventional standard of wealth." - Thorstein Veblen

 
Wikipedia: community
For other uses, see Community (disambiguation).

A community is a social group of organisms sharing an environment, normally with shared interests. In human communities, intent, belief, resources, preferences, needs, risks and a number of other conditions may be present and common, affecting the identity of the participants and their degree of cohesiveness.

The word community is derived from the Latin communitas (meaning the same), which is in turn derived from communis, which means "common, public, shared by all or many"[1]. Communis comes from a combination of the Latin prefix con- (which means "together") and the word munis (which has to do with performing services).

A community of interest gathers at Stonehenge, England, for the summer solstice.
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A community of interest gathers at Stonehenge, England, for the summer solstice.

Perspectives from various disciplines

Sociology

German sociologist Ferdinand Tönnies presented a concise differentiation between the terms "community" (Gemeinschaft) and "society" (Gesellschaft). In his 1887 work, Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft, Tönnies argued that "community" is perceived to be a tighter and more cohesive social entity within the context of the larger society, due to the presence of a "unity of will."[2] He added that family and kinship were the perfect expressions of community, but that other shared characteristics, such as place or belief, could also result in gemeinschaft.

Individual and community

Main article: Structure and agency
A group of youth interacting
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A group of youth interacting

During human growth and maturation, people encounter sets of other individuals and experiences. Infants encounter first their immediate family, then extended family, and then local community (such as school and work). They thus develop individual and group identity through associations that connect them to life-long community experiences.[3]

As people grow, they learn about and form perceptions of social structures. During this progression, they form personal and cultural values, a world view and attitudes toward the larger society. Gaining an understanding of group dynamics and how to "fit in" is part of socialization. Individuals develop interpersonal relationships and begin to make choices about whom to associate with and under what circumstances.[3]

During adolescence and adulthood, the individual tends to develop a more sophisticated identity, often taking on a role as a leader or follower in groups. If an individual develops the feeling that they belong to a group, and they must help the group they are part of, then they develop a sense of community.

Social capital

Main article: Social capital

If community exists, both freedom and security exist as well. The community then takes on a life of its own, as people become free enough to share and secure enough to get along. The sense of connectedness and formation of social networks comprise what has become known as social capital.[4]

Social capital is defined by Robert D. Putnam as "the collective value of all social networks (who people know) and the inclinations that arise from these networks to do things for each other (norms of reciprocity)." Social capital in action can be seen in groups of varying formality, including neighbors keeping an eye on each others' homes. However, as Putnam notes in Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community (2000), social capital has been falling in the United States. Putnam found that over the past 25 years, attendance at club meetings has fallen 58 percent, family dinners are down 33 percent, and having friends visit has fallen 45 percent.[5]

Western cultures are thus said to be losing the spirit of community that once were found in institutions including churches and community centers. Sociologist Ray Oldenburg states in The Great Good Place that people need three places: 1) The home, 2) the office, and, 3) the community hangout or gathering place.[6]

With this philosophy in mind, many grassroots efforts such as The Project for Public Spaces are being started to create this "Third Place" in communities. They are taking form in independent bookstores, coffeehouses, local pubs and through many innovative means to create the social capital needed to foster the sense and spirit of community.[7]

Psychology

Sense of community

To what extent do participants in joint activities experience a sense of community?
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To what extent do participants in joint activities experience a sense of community?
Main article: Sense of community

In a seminal 1986 study, McMillan and Chavis identify four elements of "sense of community": 1) membership, 2) influence, 3) integration and fulfillment of needs, and 4) shared emotional connection. They give the following example of the interplay between these factors:

Someone puts an announcement on the dormitory bulletin board about the formation of an intramural dormitory basketball team. People attend the organizational meeting as strangers out of their individual needs (integration and fulfillment of needs). The team is bound by place of residence (membership boundaries are set) and spends time together in practice (the contact hypothesis). They play a game and win (successful shared valent event). While playing, members exert energy on behalf of the team (personal investment in the group). As the team continues to win, team members become recognized and congratulated (gaining honor and status for being members). Someone suggests that they all buy matching shirts and shoes (common symbols) and they do so (influence).[8]

A Sense of Community Index (SCI) has been developed by Chavis and colleagues and revised and adapted by others. Although originally designed to assess sense of community in neighborhoods, the index has been adapted for use in schools, the workplace, and a variety of types of communities.[9]

Anthropology

Community and its features are central to anthropological research. Some of the ways community is addressed in anthropology include the following:

Social philosophy

Communitarianism

Main article: Communitarianism

Communitarianism as a group of related but distinct philosophies (or ideologies) began in the late 20th century, opposing classical liberalism and capitalism while advocating phenomena such as civil society. Not necessarily hostile to social liberalism, communitarianism rather has a different emphasis, shifting the focus of interest toward communities and societies and away from the individual. The question of priority, whether for the individual or community, must be determined in dealing with pressing ethical questions about a variety of social issues, such as health care, abortion, multiculturalism, and hate speech.

Business and communications

Organizational communication

Main article: Organizational communication

Effective communication practices in group and organizational settings are important to the formation and maintenance of communities. How ideas and values are communicated within communities are important to the induction of new members, the formulation of agendas, the selection of leaders and many other aspects. Organizational communication is the study of how people communicate within an organizational context and the influences and interactions within organizational structures. Group members depend on the flow of communication to establish their own identity within these structures and learn to function in the group setting. Although organizational communication, as a field of study, is usually geared toward companies and business groups, these may also be seen as communities. The principles of organizational communication can also be applied to other types of communities.

Interdisciplinary perspectives

Socialization

Main article: Socialization
Lewes Bonfire Night procession commemorating 17 Protestant martyrs burnt at the stake from 1555 to 1557.
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Lewes Bonfire Night procession commemorating 17 Protestant martyrs burnt at the stake from 1555 to 1557.

The process of learning to adopt the behavior patterns of the community is called socialization. The most fertile time of socialization is usually the early stages of life, during which individuals develop the skills and knowledge and learn the roles necessary to function within their culture and social environment.[3] For some psychologists, especially those in the psychodynamic tradition, the most important period of socialization is between the ages of 1 and 10. But socialization also includes adults moving into a significantly different environment, where they must learn a new set of behaviors.[10]

Socialization is influenced primarily by the family, through which children first learn community norms. Other important influences include school, peer groups, mass media, the workplace and government. The degree to which the norms of a particular society or community are adopted determines one's willingness to engage with others. The norms of tolerance, reciprocity and trust are important "habits of the heart," as de Tocqueville put it, in an individual's involvement in community.[11]

Community development


Main article: Community development

Community development, often linked with Community Work or Community Planning, is often formally conducted by non-government organisations(NGOs), universities or government agencies to improve the social well-being of local, regional and, sometimes, national communities. Less formal efforts, called community building or community organizing, seek to empower individuals and groups of people by providing them with the skills they need to effect change in their own communities[12]. These skills often assist in building political power through the formation of large social groups working for a common agenda. Community development practitioners must understand both how to work with individuals and how to affect communities' positions within the context of larger social institutions.

Formal programs conducted by universities are often used to build a knowledge base to drive curricula in sociology and community studies. The General Social Survey from the National Opinion Research Center at the University of Chicago and the Saguaro Seminar at the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University are examples of national community development in the United States. In The United Kingdom, Oxford University has led in providing extensive research in the field through its Community Development Journal,[13] used worldwide by sociologists and community development practitioners.

At the intersection between community development and community building are a number of programs and organizations with community development tools. One example of this is the program of the Asset Based Community Development Institute of Northwestern University. The institute makes available downloadable tools[14] to assess community assets and make connections between non-profit groups and other organizations that can help in community building. The Institute focuses on helping communities develop by "mobilizing neighborhood assets" — building from the inside out rather than the outside in.[15]

Community building and organizing

M. Scott Peck is of the view that the almost accidental sense of community which exists at times of crisis, for example in New York City after the September 11, 2001 attacks, can be consciously built. Peck believes that the process of "conscious community building" is a process of building a shared story, and consensual decision making, built upon respect for all individuals and inclusivity of difference. He is of the belief that this process goes through four stages:

  1. Pseudo-community: Where participants are "nice with each other", playing-safe, and presenting what they feel is the most favourable sides of their personalities.
  2. Chaos: When people move beyond the inauthenticity of pseudo-community and feel safe enough to present their "shadow" selves. This stage places great demands upon the facilitator for greater leadership and organisation, but Peck believes that "organisations are not communities", and this pressure should be resisted.
  3. Emptiness: This stage moves beyond the attempts to fix, heal and convert of the chaos stage, when all people become capable of acknowledging their own woundedness and brokenness, common to us all as human beings. Out of this emptiness comes
  4. True community: the process of deep respect and true listening for the needs of the other people in this community. This stage Peck believes can only be described as "glory" and reflects a deep yearning in every human soul for compassionate understanding from one's fellows.

More recently Scott Peck has remarked that building a sense of community is easy. It is maintaining this sense of community that is difficult in the modern world.

Community building can use a wide variety of practices, ranging from simple events such as potlucks and small book clubs to larger–scale efforts such as mass festivals and construction projects that involve local participants rather than outside contractors.

Community currencies

The Ithaca Hour is an example of community-based currency.
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The Ithaca Hour is an example of community-based currency.

Some communities have developed their own "Local Exchange Trading Systems" (LETS)[16] and local currencies, such as the Ithaca Hours system,[17] to encourage economic growth and an enhanced sense of community. Community Currencies have recently proven valuable in meeting the needs of people living in various South American nations, particularly Argentina, that recently suffered as a result of the collapse of the Argentinian national currency[18].

Conversely, at least one community, The Los Angeles Skills Pool,[19] is built around the sharing of services without the use of any currency.

The anti-war affinity group "Collateral Damage" protesting the Iraq war
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The anti-war affinity group "Collateral Damage" protesting the Iraq war

Community building that is geared toward activism is usually termed "community organizing." In these cases, organized community groups seek accountability from elected officials and increased direct representation within decision-making bodies. Where good-faith negotiations fail, these constituency-led organizations seek to pressure the decision-makers through a variety of means, including picketing, boycotting, sit-ins, petitioning, and electoral politics. The ARISE Detroit! coalition and the Toronto Public Space Committee are examples of activist networks committed to shielding local communities from government and corporate domination and inordinate influence.

Community organizing is sometimes focused on more than just resolving specific issues. Organizing often means building a widely accessible power structure, often with the end goal of distributing power equally throughout the community. Community organizers generally seek to build groups that are open and democratic in governance. Such groups facilitate and encourage consensus decision-making with a focus on the general health of the community rather than a specific interest group.

The three basic types of community organizing are grassroots organizing, coalition building, and faith-based community organizing (also called "institution-based community organizing," "broad-based community organizing" or "congregation-based community organizing")[20].

Community service

Main article: Community service

Community service is usually performed in connection with a nonprofit organization, but it may also be undertaken under the auspices of government, one or more businesses, or by individuals. It is typically unpaid and voluntary. However, it can be part of alternative sentencing approaches in a justice system and it can be required by educational institutions.

Types of community

Participants in Diana Leafe Christian's "Heart of a Healthy Community" seminar circle during an afternoon session at O.U.R. Ecovillage
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Participants in Diana Leafe Christian's "Heart of a Healthy Community" seminar circle during an afternoon session at O.U.R. Ecovillage

A number of ways to categorize types of community have been proposed; one such breakdown is:

  1. Geographic communities: range from the local neighbourhood, suburb, village, town or city, region, nation or even the planet as a whole. These refer to communities of location.
  2. Communities of culture: range from the local clique, sub-culture, ethnic group, religious, multicultural or pluralistic civilisation, or the global community cultures of today. They may be included as communities of need or identity, such as disabled persons, or frail aged people.
  3. Community organisations: range from informal family or kinship networks, to more formal incorporated associations, political decision making structures, economic enterprises, or professional associations at a small, national or international scale.

Communities are nested; one community can contain another - for example a geographic community may contain a number of ethnic communities[21].

Location

Possibly the most common usage of the word "community" indicates a large group living in close proximity. Examples of local community include:

For more details on this topic, see Community of place.

Identity

For more details on this topic, see Community of interest.

In some contexts, "community" indicates a group of people with a common identity other than location. Members often interact regularly. Common examples in everyday usage include:

Overlaps

For more details on this topic, see Intentional community.

Some communities share both location and other attributes. Members choose to live near each other because of one or more common interests.

  • A retirement community is designated and at least usually designed for retirees and seniors –- often restricted to those over a certain age, such as 55. It differs from a retirement home, which is a single building or small complex, by having a number of autonomous households.

Special nature of human community

Definitions of community as "organisms inhabiting a common environment and interacting with one another,"[22] while scientifically accurate, do not convey the richness, diversity and complexity of human communities. Their classification, likewise is almost never precise. Untidy as it may be, community is vital for humans. M. Scott Peck expressed this in the following way: "There can be no vulnerability without risk; there can be no community without vulnerability; there can be no peace, and ultimately no life, without community."[23]

From this it is clear that the concept of the individual is not and cannot ever be separated from the concept of community. Without the primary community of our family, or the secondary communities discussed above, we could not develop stable personalities as individual human beings. This conveys some of the distinctiveness of human community.


See also

Wikibooks
Wikibooks has a book on the topic of
Main articles: List of basic community topics and List of community topics

Notes

  1. ^ Harper, D. 2001. Online Etymology Dictionary.
  2. ^ Tönnies, F. 1887. Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft, p. 22.
  3. ^ a b c Newman, D. 2005. Chapter 5. "Building Identity: Socialization" pp. 134-140.
  4. ^ Putnam, D. 2000. Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of the American Community, p. 19.
  5. ^ Bowling Alone web site
  6. ^ Project for Public Spaces. 2006. Ray Oldenburg.
  7. ^ University of Florida. 2006. Social Capital in Tampa Bay: An Update Report.
  8. ^ McMillan, D.W., & Chavis, D.M. 1986. "Sense of community: A definition and theory," p. 16.
  9. ^ Perkins, D.D., Florin, P., Rich, R.C., Wandersman, A. & Chavis, D.M. (1990). Participation and the social and physical environment of residential blocks: Crime and community context. American Journal of Community Psychology, 18, 83-115. Chipuer, H. M., & Pretty, G. M. H. (1999). A review of the Sense of Community Index: Current uses, factor structure, reliability, and further development. Journal of Community Psychology, 27(6), 643-658. Long, D.A., & Perkins, D.D. (2003). Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Sense of Community Index and Development of a Brief SCI. Journal of Community Psychology, 31, 279-296.
  10. ^ Newman, D. 2005, p. 141.
  11. ^ Smith, M. 2001. Community.
  12. ^ Kelly, Anthony, "With Head, Heart and Hand: Dimensions of Community Building" (Boolarong Press) [ISBN 978086439076]
  13. ^ Community Development Journal, Oxford University Press
  14. ^ ABCD Institute, in cooperation with the W.K. Kellogg Foundation. 2006. Discovering Community Power: A Guide to Mobilizing Local Assets and Your Organization's Capacity.
  15. ^ ABCD Institute. 2006. Welcome to ABCD.
  16. ^ Local Exchange Trading Systems were first developed by Michael Linton, in Courtenay, BC, see "LETSystems - new money". Retrieved: 2006-08-01.
  17. ^ The Ithaca Hours system, developed by Paul Glover is outlined in "Creating Community Economics with Local Currency". Retrieved: 2006-08-01.
  18. ^ [http://www.strohalm.net/en/site.php| Social Trade Organisation
  19. ^ Los Angeles Skills Pool website
  20. ^ Jacoby Brown, Michael, (2006), "Building Powerful Community Organizations: A Personal Guide To Creating Groups That Can Solve Problems and Change the World" (Long Haul Press)
  21. ^ Tropman John E., Erlich, John L. and Rothman, Jack (2006), "Tactics and Techniques of Community Intervention" (Wadsworth Publishing)
  22. ^ Australian Academy of Science. Nova: Science in the News. Retrieved: 2006-07-21.
  23. ^ M. Scott Peck, 1987. The Different Drum: Community-Making and Peace, p. 233.

References

  • Barzilai, G. 2003. Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
  • Beck, U. 1992. Risk Society: Towards a New Modernity. London: Sage
— 2000. What is globalization? Cambridge: Polity Press.
  • Chavis, D.M., Hogge, J.H., McMillan, D.W., & Wandersman, A. 1986. "Sense of community through Brunswick's lens: A first look." Journal of Community Psychology, 14(1), 24-40.
  • Chipuer, H. M., & Pretty, G. M. H. (1999). A review of the Sense of Community Index: Current uses, factor structure, reliability, and further development. Journal of Community Psychology, 27(6), 643-658.
  • Cohen, A. P. 1985. The Symbolic Construction of Community. Routledge: New York.
  • Durkheim, Emile. 1950 [1895] The Rules of Sociological Method. Translated by S. A. Solovay and J. H. Mueller. New York: The Free Press.
  • Cox, F., J. Erlich, J. Rothman, and J. Tropman. 1970. Strategies of Community Organization: A Book of Readings. Itasca, IL: F. E. Peacock Publishers.
  • Effland, R. 1998. The Cultural Evolution of Civilizations Mesa Community College.
  • Giddens, A. 1999. “Risk and Responsibility” Modern Law Review 62(1): 1-10.
  • Lenski, G. 1974. Human Societies: An Introduction to Macrosociology. New York: McGraw- Hill, Inc.
  • Long, D.A., & Perkins, D.D. (2003). Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Sense of Community Index and Development of a Brief SCI. Journal of Community Psychology, 31, 279-296.
  • McMillan, D.W., & Chavis, D.M. 1986. "Sense of community: A definition and theory." American Journal of Community Psychology, 14(1), 6-23.
  • Nancy, Jean-Luc. La Communauté désœuvrée (philosophical questioning of the concept of community and the possibility of encountering a non-subjective concept of it).
  • Newman, D. 2005. Sociology: Exploring the Architecture of Everyday Life, Chapter 5. "Building Identity: Socialization" Pine Forge Press. Retrieved: 2006-08-05.
  • Peck, M.S. 1987. The Different Drum: Community-Making and Peace. New York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 0-684-84858-9
  • Perkins, D.D., Florin, P., Rich, R.C., Wandersman, A. & Chavis, D.M. (1990). Participation and the social and physical environment of residential blocks: Crime and community context. American Journal of Community Psychology, 18, 83-115.
  • Putnam, R. D. 2000. Bowling Alone: The collapse and revival of American community. New York: Simon and Schuster
  • Sarason, S.B. 1974. The psychological sense of community: Prospects for a community psychology. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
— 1986. "Commentary: The emergence of a conceptual center." Journal of Community Psychology, 14, 405-407.
  • Smith, M. K. 2001. Community. Encyclopedia of informal education. Last updated: January 28, 2005. Retrieved: 2006-07-15.
  • Tönnies, F. 1887. Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft, Leipzig: Fues's Verlag, 2nd ed. 1912, 8th edition, Leipzig: Buske, 1935; translated in 1957 as Community and Society. ISBN 0-88738-750-0

External links


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Translations: Translations for: Community

Dansk (Danish)
n. - samfund, gruppe, fællesskab, kollektiv, familie

idioms:

  • community center    kulturcenter, medborgerhus, forsamlingshus
  • community centre    kulturcenter, medborgerhus, forsamlingshus
  • community charge    kommunal skat
  • community policing    nærpoliti
  • community service    samfundstjeneste
  • community singing    fællessang

Nederlands (Dutch)
gemeenschap (etnisch/ religieus etc.), bevolkingsgroep, woongebied, gemeenschap- pelijkheid, het publiek, gemeente-

Français (French)
n. - communauté, société

idioms:

  • community center    centre communautaire
  • community centre    centre communautaire
  • community charge    (GB) impôt local
  • community policing    politique communautaire
  • community service    service communautaire
  • community singing    chants populaires (repris en ch¯ur par l'assistance)

Deutsch (German)
n. - Gemeinde, Bevölkerungsgruppe, Allgemeinheit

idioms:

  • community center    Gemeinschaftshaus
  • community centre    Gemeindezentrum
  • community charge    Gemeindesteuer
  • community policing    Gemeindeüberwachung mit persönl. Note
  • community service    sozialer Dienst
  • community singing    in einer großen Gruppe singen, vor allem Volkslieder

Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - κοινότητα, κοινωνία, κοινωνικό σύνολο, συντροφικότητα, αλληλεγγύη, κοινοκτημοσύνη
adj. - κοινοτικός

idioms:

  • community center    δημοτικό/κοινοτικό πολιτιστικό κέντρο
  • community centre    δημοτικό/κοινοτικό πολιτιστικό κέντρο
  • community charge    (οικον.) δημοτικός φόρος, δημοτικό τέλος
  • community policing    κοινοτική αστυνόμευση
  • community service    κοινοτική υπηρεσία, υπηρεσία στην κοινότητα
  • community singing    χορωδιακό τραγούδι, τραγούδι παρέας

Italiano (Italian)
comunità, comunanza, comunitario

idioms:

  • community centre    centro sociale
  • community charge    imposta comunitaria
  • community policing    polizia comunitaria
  • community service    servizio civile, pena alternativa alla detenzione

Português (Portuguese)
n. - comunidade (f), semelhança (f)
adj. - comunitário

idioms:

  • community center    centro (m) social da comunidade
  • community centre    centro (m) social da comunidade
  • community charge    alguém ou algo que a comunidade toma conta
  • community policing    política (f) da comunidade
  • community service    serviço (m) à comunidade
  • community singing    canto da comunidade

Русский (Russian)
коммуна, единство, общество

idioms:

  • community center    районный клуб
  • community centre    районный клуб
  • community charge    местный налог
  • community policing    хорошее отношение между жителями и полиции
  • community service    обществен- но-полезный труд
  • community singing    вся зала поет вместе

Español (Spanish)
n. - colectividad, comunidad, sociedad, comunitario

idioms:

  • community centre    centro social, casa del pueblo
  • community charge    impuesto municipal
  • community policing    política policial en la comunidad
  • community service    trabajo comunitario
  • community singing    canto comunitario

Svenska (Swedish)
n. - staten, samhälle, samfund, gemenskap, umgänge
adj. - stats-, samhälls-, samfunds-, gemenskaps-, umgänges-

中文（简体） (Chinese (Simplified))
社区, 共同社会, 社会, 公众, 共同体, 共有

idioms:

  • community center    社区活动中心
  • community centre    社区活动中心
  • community charge    社区服务税
  • community policing    地域警备
  • community service    社会服务
  • community singing    全场合唱

中文（繁體） (Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 社區, 共同社會, 社會, 公眾, 共同體, 共有

idioms:

  • community center    社區活動中心
  • community centre    社區活動中心
  • community charge    社區服務稅
  • community policing    地域警備
  • community service    社會服務
  • community singing