computer graphics

1. The set of technologies used to create art with computers.
2. Art or designs created using such technologies.

A branch of computer science that deals with the theory and techniques of computer image synthesis. Computers produce images by analyzing a collection of dots, or pixels (picture elements). Computer graphics is used to enhance the transfer and understanding of information in science, engineering, medicine, education, and business by facilitating the generation, production, and display of synthetic images of natural objects with realism almost indistinguishable from photographs. Computer graphics facilitates the production of images that range in complexity from simple line drawings to three-dimensional reconstructions of data obtained from computerized axial tomography (CAT) scans in medical applications. User interaction can be increased through animation, which conveys large amounts of information by seemingly bringing to life multiple related images. Animation is widely used in entertainment, education, industry, flight simulators, scientific research, and heads-up displays (devices which allow users to interact with a virtual world). Virtual-reality applications permit users to interact with a three-dimensional world, for example, by “grabbing” objects and manipulating objects in the world. Digital image processing is a companion field to computer graphics. However, image processing, unlike computer graphics, generally begins with some image in image space, and performs operations on the components (pixels) to produce new images. See also Image processing.

Computers are equipped with special hardware to display images. Several types of image presentation or output devices convert digitally represented images into visually perceptible pictures. They include pen-and-ink plotters, dot-matrix plotters, electrostatic or laser-printer plotters, storage tubes, liquid-crystal displays (LCDs), active matrix panels, plasma panels, and cathode-ray-tube (CRT) displays. Images can be displayed by a computer on a cathode-ray tube in two different ways: raster scan and random (vector) scan. See also Cathode-ray tube; Computer peripheral devices.

Interaction with the object takes place via devices attached to the computer, starting with the keyboard and the mouse. Each type of device can be programmed to deliver various types of functionality. The quality and ease of use of the user interface often determines whether users enjoy a system and whether the system is successful. Interactive graphics aids the user in the creation and modification of graphical objects and the response to these objects in real-time. The most commonly used input device is the mouse. Other kinds of interaction devices include the joystick, trackball, light pen, and data tablet. Some of these two-dimensional (2D) devices can be modified to extend to three dimensions (3D). The data glove is a device capable of recording hand movements. The data glove is capable of a simple gesture recognition and general tracking of hand orientation.

In the production of a computer-generated image, the designer has to specify the objects in the image and their shapes, positions, orientations, and surface colors or textures. Further, the viewer's position and direction of view (camera orientation) must be specified. The software should calculate the parts of all objects that can be seen by the viewer (camera). Only the visible portions of the objects should be displayed (captured on the film). (This requirement is referred to as the hidden-surface problem.) The rendering software is then applied to compute the amount and color of light reaching the viewer eye (film) at any point in the image, and then to display that point. Some modern graphics work stations have special hardware to implement projections, hidden-surface elimination, and direct illumination. Everything else in image generation is done in software.

Solid modeling is a technique used to represent three-dimensional shapes in a computer. The importance of solid modeling in computer-aided design and manufacturing (CAD/CAM) systems has been increasing. Engineering applications ranging from drafting to the numerical control of machine tools increasingly rely on solid modeling techniques. Solid modeling uses three-dimensional solid primitives (the cube, sphere, cone, cylinder, and ellipsoid) to represent three-dimensional objects. Complex objects can be constructed by combining the primitives. See also Computer-aided design and manufacturing; Computer-aided engineering.

The creation of images by simulating a model of light propagation is often called image synthesis. The goal of image synthesis is often stated as photorealism, that is, the criterion that the image look as good as a photograph. Rendering is a term used for methods or techniques that are used to display realistic-looking three-dimensional images on a two-dimensional medium such as the cathode-ray-tube screen (see illustration). The display of a wire-frame image is one way of rendering the object. The most common method of rendering is shading. Generally, rendering includes addition of texture, shadows, and the color of light that reaches the observer's eye from any point in the image.

Image renderings of a teapot. (a) Wire-frame model with 512 polygons. (b) Smooth shading (non-shiny). (A. Tokuta, Technical Report, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of South Florida)

Computer-generated images are used extensively in the entertainment world and other areas. Realistic images have become essential tools in research and education. Conveying realism in these images may depend on the convincing generation of natural phenomena. A fundamental difficulty is the complexity of the real world. Existing models are based on physical or biological concepts. The behavior of objects can be determined by physical properties or chemical and microphysical properties.

Pictures created and manipulated through the use of computer devices. The term computer graphics generally pertains to any computer device or program that makes a computer capable of displaying and manipulating pictures. For example: a laser printer is said to be a computer graphics device because it allows the computer to output pictures; likewise, a computer display monitor can display pictures. Computer graphics are used for various applications including publishing, education, entertainment, and advertising, or wherever pictures are deemed reasonable or necessary in the creation of a message. They are also used very effectively in situations where there is a need for computed data to be visualized, such as in statistical charts or graphs of mathematical data. Most computer graphics can also be drawn by an artist, but the computer can accomplish much more in a much shorter period of time. One of the major benefits of computer graphics is that images can be manipulated with relative ease and that a multitude of visual effects are possible because the images can be played with over and over again until a desired effect is achieved.

The basic building block of images on a computer screen is a dot of light called a pixel—the word created by combining the words "picture" and "element."

The computer, because it can present thousands of pixels on a computer screen in millions of different colors, can create shapes that the human eye recognizes as an image—a computer graphic.

It is hard now to imagine a world without computer graphics. Today's children have grown up with video games, and graphic designers work almost exclusively with computer programs to create images once laboriously drawn with pen, compass, ruler, and T-square on paper. Pilots learn the latest techniques of flying in flight simulators; engineers and architects design everything from aircraft to skyscrapers, making three-dimensional models with their computers; TV weather maps display precipitation as it occurs; and doctors can look inside a patient's body without breaking the skin.

It was in the early 1960s that computer pioneers at leading universities began developing computers and the graphics programs that have revolutionized the way we create visual images. The invention of the video display terminal, or computer monitor or screen, and its widespread use beginning in the 1970s, led to the revolution in the way computers were put to use. This revolution was accelerated by the introduction of the photocopier and the electronic spreadsheet to the computer field.

The photocopier was invented by Chester Carlson in 1940 and first produced commercially by Xerox Corporation in 1959. The photo-copier's cousin, the desktop laser printer, along with software for desktop publishing (a term coined in the early 1980s), made it possible for amateurs to create polished newsletters, flyers, party invitations, and other documents for modest-sized audiences. Now, with the use of scanners, individuals can produce documents containing color photos, original drawings, or any graphic image from a publication or the Internet with permission from the owners of those images.

Electronic spreadsheets, which appeared in 1978, incorporated mathematical formulas behind each element in a table of data. These formulas could refer to other elements of the table. Any change in one value would immediately affect the other cells, so business projections such as sales, growth, or changes in interest rates could be manipulated to explore "what if" scenarios; the impact of every change would be instantly apparent. Such tables can then be imported via computers into a text document to clarify and enhance the information in the document.

Computer memory and speed seem to expand by the day, along with the sophistication of graphics programs, allowing individuals in their own homes and offices to produce graphic materials that match or exceed the capabilities of even the most advanced printing firms only a few years ago.

To create a graphic image, a computer program will supply a series of instructions. Those instructions will tell a computer how to connect two points to form a straight line, draw a circle, or form a letter in printed text. To accomplish this, computer scientists have devised methods to break down complex drawing tasks to simple components. The computer program then repeats those drawing tasks over and over to form a complete image.

Drawing an image of a brick wall by hand, for example, would require an artist or draftsperson to draw hundreds or thousands of rectangles individually. The computer, on the other hand, would draw one brick, then using the same mathematical formula it used to create the first brick, would duplicate it thousands of times almost instantaneously.

Computers are excellent number crunchers. The thousands of calculations—even simple addition or subtraction calculations—needed to create a computer image would be an immensely time-consuming process without computers. But with these calculations written into a computer graphics program, the computer will quickly and precisely light up the pixels needed to create the desired graphic image on the video monitor.

Pixels are arranged in rows and columns on a screen. The number of pixels in rows times the number of pixels in columns determines their density, or resolution. Resolution is one component of the computer's ability to form a distinguishable image. A typical computer screen contains 640 pixels in a line and 480 pixels vertically. Multiplied, the number of pixels on a typical screen equals 307,200.

To draw the simplest graphics—those in black and white—the computer program will assign the number 1 to those pixels that are to be lighted and 0 to those that will remain unlit. The contrast created between lighted and unlighted dots forms the graphic image. Numbers written into computer programs likewise determine the color of each pixel in a color system.

Although the ability of computer hardware and software to produce a dense or high-resolution image is important to creating a quality image, their ability to duplicate colors is even more important.

Primary colors—reds, greens, and blues— can be combined to produce full or true color. Their lightness or darkness—or values—as well as their color create shapes, just as they would in a painting or drawing.

The number of pieces of information (bits) set aside for each pixel in a region of computer memory known as the video buffer determines how many colors the screen can display at once. A true color system is capable of displaying more than 16.7 million colors. However, because of the limits of computer memory, ordinary computers employ a 256-color system.

A program will command the use of one of the 256 colors from a color palette, which in turn will transfer that color to a pixel. Determining the numbers to achieve the desired color and value is the core of the science of computer graphics.

By limiting the possible colors to 256, each pixel cannot be illuminated with the perfect color. However, the computer, through a process called dithering, can fool the eye by blending colors among adjacent pixels. If a particular red color is not available from the color palette, the computer will spread its available red values around adjacent pixels—giving more red values and fewer green and blue values to some while giving fewer red values and more green and blue values to others to achieve the desired overall color. The process of dithering starts at the image's upper-left corner. In turn the computer will dither each pixel's red, blue, and green color values to make the image appear to the eye as color-accurate, ending at the lower-right corner of the image.

In addition to dithering, a computer can reproduce a true color image, such as a photograph containing thousands of colors, with accuracy by optimizing the use of the 256 colors available through the computer's palette.

One such technique counts the number of colors in an image and gives priority to the ones used the most. But this leaves some colors unrepresented and thus unavailable where needed. To solve this problem, a computer program will carve up an image containing several thousand colors into 256 equal "blocks" grouped according to their intensity of color. It discards the blocks with no or few dots. The remaining pixels are then divided up into 256 blocks with an equal number of pixels.

With color space divided up this way, the average of all the pixel values in each block represents an optimal choice for a palette color.

When a computer graphics program draws a line or circle, it chooses which of the pixels to illuminate on a line from point A to point B, for example, by a simple method of addition and subtraction. First the computer illuminates the pixel at point A. Then the computer moves toward B one pixel closer. Should it illuminate the pixel on the same rowor one on the row above or below? A simple calculation shows the computer which of the two pixels lies closer to the ideal line, and it illuminates that pixel.

In milliseconds, the program continues to move along the line, calculating which pixel to illuminate until it reaches point B, creating a line that is not strictly straight, but straight enough to appear so to the eye.

Just as with lines, the program will create any shape—triangle, square, or polygon—using a mathematical formula pertaining to that shape. Circles are created in much the same way. The program will choose which pixel to illuminate by measuring its distance from the center of the circle and calculating whether the one at that point along the circumference will help create the circle's ideal shape. Again, the circle is not perfectly circular, but the eye is somewhat deceived because each pixel that is illuminated differs only slightly from its neighbor.

Because computer graphic images can require large amounts of computer memory to be reproducible, techniques have been developed to reduce, or compress, the number of bits of memory needed to store the image.

One such image compression technique is named run-length encoding (RLE) .Ituses markers that stand for runs of repeating numbers in a graphics file, reducing to two—one specifying the number and another the number of that number in a run—in a file. For example, a file that contains 50 identically colored red pixels with a value of 200 can be substituted with the numbers 50 and 200. With this process, the computer knows the image requires 50 characters with a 200 red value, but it stores only those two commands, a one-twenty-fifth reduction.

Another compression method, JPEG, takes its name from, the Joint Photographic Experts Group, the organization that invented it. It uses mathematical formulas to segregate information about an image by its importance, and then discards the less important information. The image that results after such compression will not exactly match the original, since some information has been lost in the process.

Another important file format is the Tagged-Image File Format (TIFF) which can be read in either IBM-PC-compatible or Macintosh computers.

To create three-dimensional images, a computer uses a mathematical transformation called a projection. Although the images are presented on a two-dimensional screen, the computer, through using the principle of perspective— foreshortening, shading, and hidden surface removal—and through its ability to make quick calculations, can portray the object so as to make it appear to the human eye as a three-dimensional object. These techniques are the basis for computer-aided drafting and computer animation.

Rapidly changing 3-D images on the computer screen creates the illusion of motion, or animation. An animated movie will use slightly differing images on a filmstrip to create the illusion of motion. A computer acts much the same way, although it cannot produce the twenty-four full-screen images per second typical in an animated film.

The computer, however, will accomplish the same effect by displaying one image on the screen while creating a new image in the background and swapping the screen. This eliminates the time between display of the images, creating the illusion of motion.

Bibliography

Gates, Bill. (1995). The Road Ahead. New York: Viking Penguin.

Prosise, Jeff. (1994). How Computer Graphics Work. Emeryville, CA: Ziff-Davis Press.

[Article by: WALTER A. HAMILTON]

The use of computers to create illustrations or designs.

Images constructed under computer control, displayed on a cathode ray tube.

For more information on computer graphics, visit Britannica.com.

This article is about the scientific discipline of computer graphics. For a more general information on computer graphics and applications, see 2D computer graphics and 3D computer graphics

For the journal by ACM SIGGRAPH, see Computer Graphics (Publication).

Computer graphics is a sub-field of computer science and is concerned with digitally synthesizing and manipulating visual content. Although the term often refers to three-dimensional computer graphics, it also encompasses two-dimensional graphics and image processing. Computer graphics is often differentiated from the field of visualization, although the two have many similarities.

A broad classification of major subfields in computer graphics might be:

1. Geometry: studies ways to represent and process surfaces
2. Animation: studies with ways to represent and manipulate motion
3. Rendering: studies algorithms to reproduce light transport
4. Imaging: studies image acquisition or image editing

The Utah teapot

Definition

Computer graphics broadly studies the manipulation of visual and geometric information using computational techniques. Computer graphics as an academic discipline focuses on the mathematical and computational foundations of image generation and processing rather than purely aesthetic issues.

Geometry

The subfield of geometry studies the representation of three-dimensional objects in a discrete digital setting. Because the appearance of an object depends largely on the exterior of the object, boundary representations are most common in computer graphics. Two dimensional surfaces are a good analogy for the objects most often used in graphics, though quite often these objects are non-manifold. Since surfaces are not finite, a discrete digital approximation is required: polygonal meshes (and to a lesser extent subdivision surfaces) are by far the most common representation, although point-based representations have been gaining some popularity in recent years (see the Symposium on Point-Based Graphics, for instance). These representations are Lagrangian, meaning the spatial locations of the samples are independent. In recent years, however, Eulerian surface descriptions (i.e., where spatial samples are fixed) such as level sets have been developed into a useful representation for deforming surfaces which undergo many topological changes (with fluids being the most notable example^[1]).

Subfields

• Constructive solid geometry - Process by which complicated objects are modelled with implicit geometric objects and boolean operations
• Discrete differential geometry - a nascent field which defines geometric quantities for the discrete surfaces used in computer graphics^[2].
• Digital geometry processing - surface reconstruction, simplification, fairing, mesh repair, parameterization, remeshing, mesh generation, surface compression, and surface editing all fall under this heading ^[3][4][5].
• Point-based graphics - a recent field which focuses on points as the fundamental representation of surfaces.
• Simulation (e.g. cloth modeling, animation of fluid dynamics, etc.)
• Subdivision surfaces

Animation

The subfield of animation studies descriptions for surfaces (and other phenomena) that move or deform over time. Historically most interest in this area has been focused on parametric and data-driven models, but in recent years physical simulation has experienced a renaissance due to the growing computational capacity of modern machines.

Rendering

Rendering converts a model into an image either by simulating light transport to get physically-based photorealistic images, or by applying some kind of style as in non-photorealistic rendering. The two basic operations in realistic rendering are transport (how much light gets from one place to another) and scattering (how surfaces interact with light). See Rendering (computer graphics) for more information.

Transport

Transport describes how illumination in a scene gets from one place to another. Visibility is a major component of light transport.

Scattering

Models of scattering and shading are used to describe the appearance of a surface. Although these issues may seem like a problems all on their own, they are studied almost exclusively within the context of rendering ^{[citation needed]}. Shading can be broken down into two orthogonal issues, which are often studied independently:

1. scattering - how light interacts with the surface at a given point
2. shading - how material properties vary across the surface

The former problem refers to scattering, i.e., the relationship between incoming and outgoing illumination at a given point. Descriptions of scattering are usually given in terms of a bidirectional scattering distribution function or BSDF. The latter issue addresses how different types of scattering are distributed across the surface (i.e., which scattering function applies where). Descriptions of this kind are typically expressed with a program called a shader. (Note that there is some confusion since the word "shader" is sometimes used for programs that describe local geometric variation.)

Other subfields

• physically-based rendering - concerned with generating images according to the laws of geometric optics
• real time rendering - focuses on rendering for interactive applications, typically using specialized hardware like GPUs
• non-photorealistic rendering
• relighting - recent area concerned with quickly re-rendering scenes

History

One of the first displays of computer animation was Futureworld (1976), which included an animation of a human face and hand — produced by Ed Catmull and Fred Parke at the University of Utah.

There are several international conferences and journals where the most significant results in computer graphics are published. Among them are the SIGGRAPH and Eurographics conferences and the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) Transactions on Graphics journal. The joint Eurographics and ACM SIGGRAPH symposium series features the major venues for the more specialized sub-fields: Symposium on Geometry Processing,Symposium on Rendering, and Symposium on Computer Animation.

An extensive history of computer graphics can be found at this page.

Applications

• Digital art
• Special effects
• Visual effects
• Video games

Connected studies

• Computer vision
• Image processing
• Computational Geometry
• Computational Topology

Computer graphics research groups

Academia

The number of computer science departments with computer graphics groups has grown rapidly over the past two decades.

Click show for a partial list of academic departments notably involved in graphics research 

• Berkeley Computer Animation and Modeling Group
• Bristol University Computer Graphics Group
• C²G² at Columbia University
• Caltech Multi-Res Modeling Group
• Carnegie Mellon Graphics Lab
• Center for Graphics and Geometric Computing at Technion Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
• Computer Graphics Department at Max-Planck-Institut fur Informatik
• Computer Graphics Department at Haute Ecole Albert Jacquard
• Computer Graphics Group at Brown
• Computer Graphics Group at RWTH Aachen University
• Computer Graphics at Harvard
• Computer Graphics and Immersive Technologies Laboratory at USC
• Computer Graphics Laboratory at Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST)
• Computer Graphics Group at PUC-Rio
• Computer Graphics Group at University of Virginia
• Computer Graphics Laboratory at University of Tokyo
• Computer Graphics Laboratory at UT Austin
• Computer Graphics Laboratory at ETH Zurich
• Computer Graphics / Geometric Design Group at Rice
• Computer Graphics and User Interfaces Lab at Columbia University
• Computer Graphics and Visualization Lab at Purdue University
• Computer Graphics and Visualization Lab at University of Utah
• Computer Graphics and Visualization Lab at University of Wisconsin
• Cornell University Program of Computer Graphics
• Dynamic Graphics Project at University of Toronto
• Geometric Modeling and Industrial Geometry Group at Technische Universitat Wien
• Graphics and Image Analysis at UNC
• Graphics and Geometric Computing Group at Tsinghua University
• Graphics@Illinois
• GRAIL at University of Washington
• GRAVIR at iMAGIS
• GVIL at University of Maryland, College Park
• GVU Center at Georgia Tech
• IDAV Visualization and Graphics Research Group at UC Davis
• IMAGINE Research Group at Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia
• Imager Laboratory at University of British Columbia
• MIT Computer Graphics Group
• MRL at NYU
• Princeton Graphics and Geometry Group
• Stanford Computer Graphics Laboratory
• UCSD Computer Graphics Laboratory
• Vision Research Center at Vanderbilt

Industry

Industrial labs doing "blue sky" graphics research include:

• Adobe Research
• MERL
• Microsoft Research - Graphics
• NVIDIA Research

Major film studios notable for graphics research include:

• ILM
• PDI/Dreamworks Animation
• Pixar

Notable people in computer graphics

Click show to see the list 

• Al Barr ^[6]
• Alexei Efros ^[7]
• Allen Van Gelder ^[8]
• Andrew Witkin ^[9]
• Andries van Dam ^[10]
• Bjorn Engquist
• Brian Curless ^[11]
• Carlo Sequin ^[12]
• Carlo Tomasi ^[13]
• Chris Bregler ^[14]
• Dani Lischinski ^[15]
• David Baraff ^[16]
• David Donoho ^[17]
• David Forsyth
• David Salesin ^[18]
• Demetri Terzopoulos ^[19]
• Dimitris Metaxas ^[20]
• Dinesh Manocha ^[21]
• Donald Greenberg ^[22]
• Edwin Catmull
• Frederic Pighin
• Gene Golub
• George Grie
• Greg Turk
• Guillermo Sapiro ^[23]
• Henry Fuchs ^[24]
• Hugues Hoppe ^[25]
• Ingrid Daubechies ^[26] - known for her work on wavelets
• James D. Foley ^[27]
• James Kajiya - known for the rendering equation
• James O'Brien ^[28]
• James Sethian - known for the level set method
• Jarek Rossignac ^[29]
• Jean-Michel Morel ^[30]
• Jessica Hodgins ^[31]
• Jim Blinn - known for bump mapping
• Jack E. Bresenham ^[32] -known for line drawing algorithm
• Jitendra Malik ^[33]
• Joe Warren ^[34]
• John Canny ^[35]
• John Hughes ^[36]
• Ken Perlin
• Kenneth Torrance ^[37]
• Lance Williams ^[38]
• Leonidas Guibas ^[39]
• Leonard McMillan ^[40]
• Leon Tabak ^[41]
• Li-Yi Wei ^[42]
• Loren Carpenter
• Marc Levoy
• Michael Black
• Michael Cohen ^[43]
• Michael Garland ^[44] - known for the quadric error metric
• Michael Kass ^[45]
• Ming Lin ^[46]
• Norman Badler ^[47]
• Olivier Faugeras ^[48]
• Pat Hanrahan
• Paul Debevec
• Paul Heckbert ^[49]
• Peter Lax
• Peter Schroder ^[50]
• Pierre-Louis Lions
• Pietro Perona ^[51]
• Pradeep Sen
• Przemyslaw Prusinkiewicz [63]
• Richard Szeliski ^[52]
• Robert Cook
• Ron Fedkiw
• Sebastian Thrun ^[53]
• Shree Nayar ^[54]
• Stan Osher ^[55]
• Steven Gortler ^[56]
• Steven Seitz ^[57]
• Takeo Kanade
• Thomas Porter
• Thomas Sederberg ^[58]
• Tom Duchamp ^[59]
• Tony DeRose ^[60]
• Turner Whitted ^[61]
• William Reeves
• Wim Sweldons ^[62]

See also

• 3D computer graphics
• 3D Projections on 2D planes
• ASCII art
• Cloth modeling
• Computer facial animation
• Digital geometry
• Digital image editing
• Geometry pipelines
• Geometry processing
• Graphical output devices
• Graphics processing unit (GPU)
• Painter's algorithm
• SIGGRAPH
• Stanford Bunny
• Tile engine
• Timeline of CGI in films
• Utah Teapot
• Video Display Controller

Numerous sub-areas of computer graphics can be found in Category:3D computer graphics.

References

1. ^ [1]
2. ^ [2]
3. ^ [3]
4. ^ [4]
5. ^ [5]
6. ^ [6]
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16. ^ [16]
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19. ^ [19]
20. ^ [20]
21. ^ [21]
22. ^ [22]
23. ^ [23]
24. ^ [24]
25. ^ [25]
26. ^ [26]
27. ^ [27]
28. ^ [28]
29. ^ [29]
30. ^ [30]
31. ^ [31]
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61. ^ [61]
62. ^ [62]

External links

• A Critical History of Computer Graphics and Animation
• Basic Computer Graphics Programs
• History of Computer Graphics series of articles
• The ARTS: Episode 5 An in depth interview with Legalize on the subject of the History of Computer Graphics. (Available in MP3 audio format)

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