A conductor conducting at a ceremony
A conductor's score and batons
Conducting is the act of directing a musical performance by way of visible gestures.
Orchestras, choirs, concert
bands and other musical ensembles often have conductors.
Nomenclature
The principal conductor of an orchestra or opera company is
sometimes referred to as a music director or chief conductor, or by the German word, kapellmeister. Conductors of
choirs are sometimes referred to as choral director, chorus master, or
choirmaster, particularly for choirs associated with a particular orchestra. Conductors of military bands and other bands may hold the title of bandmaster. Respected senior conductors are
sometimes referred to by the Italian word, maestro (teacher).
History of conducting
An early form of conducting is cheironomy, the use of hand gestures to indicate
melodic shape. This has been practiced at least as far back as the Middle Ages. In the Christian church, the person giving these symbols
held a staff to signify his role, and it seems that as music became more rhythmically involved, the staff was moved up and down to indicate the beat, acting as an early form of
baton.
In the 17th century, other devices to indicate the passing of time came into use. Rolled
up sheets of paper, smaller sticks and unadorned hands are all shown in pictures from this period. The large staff was
responsible for the death of Jean-Baptiste Lully, who stabbed his foot with the
staff while conducting a Te Deum for the king's recovery from illness. The wound became gangrenous, and he died two months later, after refusing surgery to remove the infected toe.
A modern wooden conducting baton
In instrumental music, a single performer usually acted as the conductor. This could be the principal violinist, who used his bow as a baton, or a lutenist who would move the neck of his instrument in time with the beat. It was common to conduct from the
harpsichord in pieces that had a basso continuo part.
In opera performances, there were sometimes two conductors - the keyboard was in charge of the singers, and the principal
violinist was in charge of the orchestra.
By the early 19th century, it became the norm to have one person entirely dedicated to
conducting, not performing as well. The orchestra expanded in size during this period, and the baton became more common, as it
was easier to see than bare hands or rolled-up paper. Among the earliest notable conductors were Louis Spohr, Carl Maria von Weber, Louis Antoine Jullien and Felix Mendelssohn, all of
whom were also composers. Mendelssohn is known to have been the first conductor to utilize a wooden baton to keep time, an
innovation still in use today. Hans von Bülow is commonly considered the first
professional full-time (non-composer) conductor.
Hector Berlioz and Richard Wagner were also
conductors, and they wrote two of the earliest essays dedicated to the subject. Berlioz is considered the first virtuoso
conductor. Wagner was largely responsible for shaping the conductor's role as one who imposes his own view of a piece onto the
performance rather than one who is simply responsible for ensuring entries are made at the right time and that there is a unified
beat.
In late 20th century, a New York composer Walter Thompson created a live composing
sign language known as soundpainting to be used in the medium of structured improvisation.
At present the language includes over 750 gestures used as communication tool by the composer/conductor to indicate the type of
improvisation desired of the performers. In addition, a system developed by Lawrence D. "Butch"
Morris, called conduction is another prominent movement in the field. The latter is considered more effective to dictate
relationships and transformations, giving the improvisers more control over the content they contribute.
Technique
Conducting is a means of communicating real-time information to performers. There are no absolute rules on how to conduct
correctly, and a wide variety of different conducting styles exist. The primary responsibilities of the conductor are to set the
tempo, execute clear preparations and beats, and to listen and shape the sound of the ensemble.
An understanding of the basic elements of musical expression (tempo, dynamics, articulation) and the ability to communicate
them effectively to an ensemble is necessary in order to conduct. The ability to communicate nuances of phrasing and expression
through gesture is also beneficial. Conducting gestures may be choreographed beforehand by the conductor while studying the
score, or may be spontaneous.
A distinction is sometimes made between orchestral conducting and choral conducting. Stereotypically, orchestral conductors use a baton more often
than choral conductors (though not always: this is up to the conductor's personal preference), and favor the use of
beat patterns over gestural conducting, which concentrates more on musical expression and
shape.
The grip of the baton is a contentious issue that varies from conductor to
conductor. Despite a wide variety of styles, a number of standard conventions have developed.
Beat and tempo
2/4, 2/2, or fast 6/8 time
The beat of the music is typically indicated with the conductor's right hand, with or
without a baton. The hand traces a shape in the air in every bar (measure) depending on the time signature, indicating each beat
with a change from downward to upward motion. The images show the most common beat patterns, as seen from the conductor's point
of view.
The downbeat indicates the first beat of the bar, and the upbeat indicates the last beat of the bar. The instant at which the beat occurs is called the
ictus (plural: ictus or ictuses), and is usually indicated by a sudden (though not necessarily large) click
of the wrist or change in baton direction. In some instances, "ictus" is also used to
refer to a horizontal plane in which all the ictuses are physically located, such as the top of a music stand where a baton is tapped at each ictus. The gesture leading up to the ictus is called the
"preparation", and the continuous flow of steady beats is called the "takt".
If the tempo is slow or slowing, or if the time
signature is compound, a conductor will sometimes indicate "subdivisions"
of the beats. The conductor can do so by adding each beat with 'and', where each is a smaller movement but in the same direction
of the beat that it belongs to.
Changes to the tempo are indicated by changing the speed of the beat. To carry out and to control a rallentando, a conductor may introduce beat subdivisions.
Some conductors use both hands to indicate the beat, with the left hand mirroring the right, though others view this as
redundant and therefore to be avoided. This is also seen as improper practice by many. The second hand should be used for cueing
the entrances of individual players or sections, and to aid the indication of dynamics, phrasing, expression, and other musical
elements.
Dynamics
Dynamics are indicated in various ways. The dynamic may be communicated by the size
of the conducting movements: the larger the shape, the louder the sound. Changes in dynamic may be signaled with the hand that is
not being used to indicate the beat: an upward motion (usually palm-up) indicates a crescendo;
a downward motion (usually palm-down) indicates a diminuendo. Changing the size of
conducting movements may result in unintended tempo changes because larger movements require the beat to traverse more space in
the same amount of time.
Dynamics can be fine-tuned using various gestures: showing one's palm to the performers or leaning away from them may
demonstrate a decrease in volume. In order to adjust the overall balance of the various instruments or voices, these signals can
be combined directed towards a particular section or performer.
Cueing
The indication of "entries", when a new instrument or section begins playing, is called "cueing". A cue must forecast with
certainty the exact moment of the coming ictus, so that all the players or singers can play simultaneously. Cueing is achieved by
engaging the players before their entry and executing a clear preparation, often directed towards the specific players, all while
maintaining eye contact. An inhale, which may or may not be a semi-audible "sniff" from the conductor, is a common element in the
cueing technique of many conductors. Mere eye contact or a look in the general direction of the players may be sufficient in many
instances, as when more than one section of the ensemble enters at the same time. Larger musical events may warrant the use of a
larger or more emphatic cue designed to generate emotion and energy.
Other musical elements
Articulation may be indicated by the character of the ictus, ranging from short and sharp for staccato, to long and fluid for legato. Many conductors change the tension of
the hands: strained muscles and rigid movements may correspond to marcato, while relaxed hands and soft movements may correspond
to legato or espressivo.
Phrasing may be indicated by wide overhead arcs or by a smooth hand motion either forwards or side-to-side. A held note is
often indicated by a hand held flat with palm up. The end of a note, called a "cutoff" or "release", may be indicated by a
circular motion, the closing of the palm, or the pinching of finger and thumb. A release is usually preceded by a preparation and
concluded with a complete stoppage of motion.
Conductors aim to maintain eye contact with the ensemble as much as possible, encouraging eye contact in return and increasing
the general dialogue between players/singers and conductor. Facial expressions may also be important to demonstrate the character
of the music or to encourage the players.
See also
References
- Norman Lebrecht, The Maestro Myth: Great Conductors in Pursuit of Power, 2nd Rev&Up edition, Citadel Press
2001
- Brock McElheran, "Conducting Technique"
- Frederik Prausnitz, "Score and Podium"
- Max Rudolf, "The Grammar Of Conducting"
- Larry G. Curtis and David L. Kuehn, "A Guide To Successful Instrumental Conducting."
- Michel Faul, "Louis Jullien, musique, spectacle et folie au XIXe siècle" (editions Atlantica, France 2006).Dedicated
site : http://louisjullien.site.voila.fr
External links
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