Cotingas (Cotingidae)

(Cotingidae)

Class: Aves

Order: Passeriformes

Suborder: Tyranni

Family: Cotingidae

Thumbnail description
A spectacular group of birds that range in size from a canary to a crow, and are characterized by extreme colors, vocalizations, and/or body ornamentation

Size
3.25–20 in (8–51 cm); 0.04–1.25 lb (18–571 g)

Number of genera, species
25 genera; 61 species

Habitat
Predominately tropical forest, including seasonally inundated and dry tropical forest

Conservation status
Critically Endangered: 1 species; Endangered: 4 species; Vulnerable: 10 species; Near Threatened: 5 species

Distribution
Southern Mexico to northern Argentina and eastern Brazil

Evolution and systematics

The cotingas (Cotingidae) are a striking family of birds. Not widely investigated in the past, cotingas are becoming more widely researched, and the number of studies is increasing. There are no known fossils of this family at the present time.

The common ancestor in cotinga lineage was perhaps similar to the Old World family Eurylaimidae. In addition to giving rise to cotingas, this ancestor also gave rise to manakins and tyrant flycatchers. Indeed, Tityras and Becards, were, until recently, placed within the family Cotingidae, but now are considered tyrant flycatchers (family Tyrannidae). Some species of cotingas such as red-cotingas (Phoenicircus) are considered by some to be the link between the cotinga and manakin families, based upon morphological and behavioral characteristics. More than one-half of the genera are represented as "superspecies", where there are several closely related "sister taxa" with non-overlapping geographic ranges.

Peters Checklist recognizes 25 genera with 61 species, including: 1. The true cotinga (Cotinga). The males are brilliant blue to purple in different patterns, while the females are dull brown. These birds are found in the tropical zone of the Amazon forests. There are seven species, including the banded cotinga (Cotinga maculata) which is found in Brazil; 2. The fruiteaters (Pipreola) comprise at least eight species, including the barred fruiteater (Pipreola arcuata); 3. The red-ruffed fruitcrow (Pyroderus scutatus); 4. The capuchin bird (Perissocephalus tricolor); 5. The Amazonian umbrella bird (Cephalopterus ornatus), one of the largest species, with a length of up to 22 in (51 cm); 6. The cocks-of-the-rock (Rupicola) are plump, short-tailed, broad-footed birds. There are two species, including the andean cock-of-the-rock (Rupicola peruviana); and 7. The bellbirds (Procnias), of which there are four species: a. The white bellbird (Procnias alba); b. The bare-throated bellbird (Procnias nudicollis); c. The three-wattled bellbird (Procnias tricarunculata); and d. The bearded (or mossy-throated) bellbird (Procnias averano).

Physical characteristics

Cotingas are characterized by compact bodies, large heads and wide mouths, often with a hook-tipped bill. The tarsi (feet) are surrounded only by band-like plates in front, but covered at the rear with very small platelets which are not all contiguous. Although the legs are short relative to the size of the bird, the feet are of sufficient to perch comfortably; this is perhaps enhanced by long, sharp claw in some species (e.g., Rupicola, Cephalopterus).

Cotingas show more variation in size than any other group of passerines, ranging from the size of a canary to a crow. The length is 3–20 in (8–50 cm). There is a significant amount of sexual dimorphism, with mass being greater in females of the smaller species (e.g., Iodopleura, Porphyrolaema, Cotinga, Lipaugus, and Phoenicircus), but the reverse situation (i.e., greater in males) in the larger species (e.g., Gymnodoerus, Cephalopterus). Dimorphism also extends to plumage, with males being the more colorful sex.

Many species are quite beautiful; they have striking colors, decorative plumes, crests, inflatable throat sacs, strands of skin or bare leppets on the forehead or at the angle of the beak. These ornaments are more strongly accentuated in males. Many of the larger cotingas are distinguished not only by the gloss and brightness of their plumage and their quite unusual appendages, but also by their tuneful, far-reaching calls. The vocal muscles are strong.

Distribution

Cotingas are restricted to the Neotropics, distributed from southern Mexico through most of tropical South America as far as northern Argentina. Although most species are found at sea level, there are several Andean forms, with species such as the white-cheeked cotinga (Ampelion stresemanni) ranging up to 14,000 ft (4,300 m).

Countries harboring the most different species of cotingas include Brazil (approximately 33 species), and the northwest Andean countries (Colombia 35, Peru 31, Ecuador 30, Venezuela 27). In contrast, the countries furthest south (Argentina) and north (Middle American countries) of the equator contain only two or three species.

Most cotingas are regionally restricted. While several species are found throughout most of the Amazon basin, the species with the widest distribution is perhaps the purple-throated fruitcrow (Querula purpurata), which ranges from Costa Rica through Bolivia. In contrast, the rarest species is the kinglet calyptura (Calyptura cristata) that is restricted to a 0.4 mi² (1 km²) patch of forest north of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. This species went unreported for most of the 1900s, though some recent reports from 1996 suggest that it is still present.

Habitat

Most cotingas are shy, unobtrusive avoiders of civilization, and as such they inhabit the upper and middle tree levels of continuous forest areas, as residents. Only a few species are also found in open landscapes or secondary forest. Many of the larger species (e.g., Gymnodoerus and Cephalopterus ornatus) are riverine specialists, but some of the smaller species (e.g., Cotinga maynana) will inhabit riverine habitat or swamp edges as well. They are often visually inconspicuous and at the same time widely distributed.

Behavior

While many of the smaller species (e.g., Porphyrolaema) are solitary, the larger species (e.g., Gymnodoerus) will often travel in small flocks.

There are general "tradeoffs" in adaptations used by male cotingas to attract females. In general terms, males of the smaller species (e.g., Cotinga) tend to be brighter colored and less vocal, whereas the medium-sized species tend to be more vocal and less brightly colored (Querula); the largest species (e.g., Cephalopterus) tend to have more apparent body ornamentation, such as throat wattles or lappets.

While many of the cotingas have a very subtle or soft call, some of the more "drab" species compensate what they lack in plumage with a series of resonating, and sometimes farreaching, whistles (e.g., Lipaugus, Tijuca, Querula). Some of the larger species are able to expand parts of the trachea and pharynx, to release with the exhale a sound similar to the "mooing" of a cow, thus the name "Calfbird" (Perissocephalus); another species displaying this "mooing" vocalization is the Umbrellabird (Cephalopterus). Other species (e.g., Rupicola, Procnias nudicollis) are quite vocal as well. Some species are able to produce noises of sorts with their wings (e.g., Cotinga, Xipholena, Phoenicircus, Rupicola).

Many cotinga species form "leks" (loose to tight associations of several males vying for females through elaborate display), although this trend appears to be strongest in the medium-sized species (e.g., Lipaugus, Phoenicircus).

Cotingas do not exhibit any great degree of territoriality. For example, different species of cotingas (e.g., Cotinga, Querula, Gymnodoerus) may be perched in the same tree with no agonistic behavior. Similarly, these same species have been observed occupying trees with other families of birds (e.g., kites [Ictinia plumbea], parrots [Graydidascalus brachyurus, Brotogeris cyanoptera], flycatchers [Empidonomus aurantioatrocristatus, Tyrannopsis luteiventris], and other passerines [Laniocerca hypopyrrha, Scaphidura oryzivora, Thraupis episcopus]) present without incident. Helmut Sick notes that species such as Piprites, Querula purpurata, and Oxyruncus cristatus join mixed species flocks of birds regularly. During more than 10 weeks of observation in the northern Peruvian Amazon, only a single incident of agonistic behavior was observed. This involved a female spangled cotinga Cotinga cayana and female Cinereous mourner Laniocerca hypopyrrha (a non-Cotingid) simultaneously mobbing a female bare-necked fruitcrow Gymnodoerus through habitat that was atypical for the latter species. The mobbing behavior led to the Gymnodoerus flying out of the area. In Brazil, Sick noted a Procnias nudicollis displacing a female Xipholena atropurpurea from a tree.

Like most Passerines, cotingas are inactive at night, and most active during the early morning light. The secondary peak of activity tends to occur in the late afternoon, just before dusk.

Although some short-distance migration patterns (or altitudinal migration) may characterize some species of cotingas, the family is for the most part non-migratory.

Feeding ecology and diet

Cotingas have wide gaping mouths, adapted to eating berries and other fruits. The larger species and those which inhabit open country also like to take insects as well. Fruits eaten include those of palms (Euterpes, Livistonia) and Cecropias, as well as fruits of the plant families Lauraceae, Burseraceae, Loranthaceae, Melostomataceae, and Myrsinaceae (e.g., Rapanea ferruginea).

There appears to be increased dietary specialization in larger species versus smaller species, which are more generalized in their diets. Additionally, many of the smaller species tend to be "gorgers", settling in the lower parts of bushes to feed on masting fruits. Feeding is done while flying, perching, or hopping through branches. As a relatively passive group, cotingas display little intraspecific competition or aggression at fruiting trees, with several individuals (even males) foraging without incident in at least some species (Cotinga).

Smaller seeds of the fruits they consume are passed through and dispersed without being digested, whereas larger seeds are regurgitated on the spot. Seed dispersal helps regenerate the tropical forests where cotingas live, as seeds of their preferred food plants are distributed throughout the forests.

Reproductive biology

Cotingas are polygynous birds. Several species of cotingas (e.g., Pyroderus scutatus, Perissocephalus tricolor, and Phoenicircus), form "tight" leks where the males compete for the attention of a female through elaborate displays. Other more drab species such as Lipaugus and Querula purpurata, will compete for females in "loosely-attended" leks through their loud calls that carry far in the tropical forest. In yet other species, a single male will court a female, but not without the presence of other males. "Flags" (signals designed to attract attention) during flight serve as courtship signals in species such as Xipholena, whereas an elaborate flight entails the courtship for species such as Gymnodoerus and Haemotoderus.

Most species lay a single egg, concordant with Rensch's rule of clutch sizes decreasing in more equatorial species; however, clutch size may reach three eggs in species such as Phibalura flavirostris. While egg color varies from yellow to brown among species, most taxa have flecking at the blunt end. Females incubate alone in some genera, such as Cotinga and Querula, whereas in others males assist during nest building (e.g., Phibalura) or incubation (e.g., Iodopleura and Phibalura). Aggressive nest defense has been observed in certain species as well. Incubation is generally 25 to 28 days for the larger species, but may be of shorter duration for the smaller species.

Nests vary considerably from species to species. Species of most genera (e.g., Cotinga, Querula, Xipholena, Perissocephalus, Lipaugus, and Cephalopterus) build a small platform of sticks in the fork of a tree. Other species build a smaller nest with a shallow cup (e.g., Phibalura, Gymnodoerus, and Iodopleura).

The chicks hatch blind and featherless, quite dependent upon the parents. Females alone care for the brood in genera such as Cotinga and Procnias. In other species (e.g., Querula purpurata) multiple helpers care for the brood. The young leave the nest at, or slightly more than, one month of age. Some cotingas have more than one clutch per year.

Conservation status

Of the 61 species, the kinglet calyptura (Calyptura cristata) is considered Critically Endangered, 4 species are considered Endangered (Iodopleura pipra, Cotinga maculata, Xipholena atropurpurea, and Carpodectes antoniae), 10 are considered Vulnerable (Laniisoma elegans, Tijuca condita, Carpornis melanocephalus, Doliornis remseni, Lipaugus uropygialis, L. lanioides, Cotinga ridgwayi, Cephalopterus glabricollis, C. penduliger, and Procnias tricarunculata), and 5 are considered Near Threatened. This makes nearly one-third of the species of real or potential conservation concern.

Habitat destruction is the main threat to cotingas. Of the 20 species that are of potential conservation concern, 12 are from the Brazilian coastal Atlantic forests, which suffer extensively from forest fragmentation. Of the remaining species, four are from the Andes, and four are from Middle America, both areas which also suffer forest fragmentation.

Once thought to be extinct, the kinglet calyptura caused great excitment among birdwatchers when it was spotted by Brazilian bird expert Ricardo Parrini in Rio de Janeiro on October 27, 1996. The first sighting of this tiny creature in over 100 years, the find was documented in a 2001 edition of Cotinga magazine.

Significance to humans

Several indigenous tribes use cotinga feathers in their ornamentation. One of the most frequently seen groups is Cotinga, which is commonly represented in costumes of certain Amazonian tribes. Perhaps as many as 10–15% of artifacts have Cotinga feathers, although the most commonly used feathers are those of Psittacids (Ara and Amazona). During the late 1990s, cocks-of-the-rock were threatened due to demand of their feathers to make fishing flies. Additionally some species may be hunted incidentally as a protein source. The head and beard ornamentation of species such as Cephalopterus ornatus are sometimes seen in Amazonian riverboats, but the associated belief, whether aphrodisiac or mere folklore, is unknown.

Species accounts

Resources

BirdLife International. Threatened Birds of the World. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions, 2000.

Ridgely, Robert S., and Guy Tudor. The Birds of South America. Vol. 2, The Suboscine Passerines. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994.

Sick, Helmut. Birds in Brazil: A Natural History. New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1993.

Snow, David W. The Cotingas. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1982.

Snow, David W. The Web of Adaptation: Bird Studies in the American Tropics. New York: Quadrangle Times Book Co., 1985.

Stotz, Douglas F., et al. Neotropical Birds: Ecology and Conservation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.

Berry, Robert J. and Rochelle Plasse. "Breeding the Scarlet Cock-of-the-Rock (Rupicola peruviana) at the Houston Zoological Gardens." International Zoo Yearbook. 22 (1982): 171–175.

Brooks, Daniel M. "Comparative Life History of Cotingas in the Peruvian Amazon." Orn. Neotrop. 10 (1999): 193–206.

Cuervo, Andres M., et al. "A New Species of Piha (Cotingidae: Lipaugus) from the Cordillera Central of Colombia." Ibis 143 (2001): 353–368.

Jahn, Olaf, et al. "The Life-history of the Long Wattled Umbrellabird Cephalopterus penduliger in the Andean Foothills of North-west Ecuador: Leks, Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation." Bird Conservation International 9 (1999): 81–94.

Pacheco, José Fernando, and Paulo Sérgio Moreira da Fonseca. "The Remarkable Rediscovery of the Kinglet Calyptura Calyptura cristata." Cotinga 16 (2001): 44-47.

Sick, Helmut. "An Egg of the Umbrellabird." Wilson Bulletin 63 (1951): 338–339.

Snow, Betty K. "Notes on the Behavior of Three Cotingidae." Auk 78 (1961): 150–161.

Snow, David W. "The Classification of the Cotingidae" Breviora 409 (1973): 1–27.

Trail, Pepper W., and Paul Donahue. "Notes on the Behavior and Ecology of the Red-cotingas (Cotingidae: Phoenicircus)." Wilson Bulletin 103 (1991): 539–551. von Hagen, Wolfgang. "On the Capture of the Umbrellabird (Cephalopterus penduliger Sclater)." Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London (1937): 25–30.

Wallace, Alfred R. "On the Umbrellabird (Cephalopterus ornatus)." Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 1849: 206–207.

Neotropical Bird Club. c/o The Lodge, Sandy, Bedfordshire SG19 2DL United Kingdom. E-mail: secretary@neotropicalbirdclub.org

[Article by: Daniel M. Brooks, PhD]