Share on Facebook Share on Twitter Email
Answers.com

courage

 
courage

Click here for more free books!
(kûr'ĭj, kŭr'-) pronunciation
n.
The state or quality of mind or spirit that enables one to face danger, fear, or vicissitudes with self-possession, confidence, and resolution; bravery.

[Middle English corage, from Old French, from Vulgar Latin *corāticum, from Latin cor, heart.]


Search unanswered questions...
Enter a question here...
Search: All sources Community Q&A Reference topics

In addition to the idiom beginning with courage, also see Dutch courage; pluck up (one's courage).


n

Definition: boldness, braveness
Antonyms: cowardice, faint-heartedness, fear, meekness, timidity, weakness

An action is courageous if it is an attempt to achieve an end despite penalties, risks, costs, or difficulties of sufficient gravity to deter most people. Similarly a state such as cheerfulness is courageous if it is sustained in spite of such difficulties. A courageous person is characteristically able to attempt such actions or maintain such states. For Aristotle, courage is dependent on sound judgement, for it needs to be known whether the end justifies the risk incurred. Similarly, courage is not the absence of fear (which may be a vice), but the ability to feel the appropriate amount of fear; courage is a mean between timidity and overconfidence.

Oxford Companion to the Mind:

fear and courage

Top
Although the word 'fear' is used without difficulty in everyday language to mean the experience of apprehension, problems arise when it is used as a scientific term. It cannot be assumed that people are always able, or even willing, to recognize and then describe their fears. In wartime, admissions of fear are discouraged. Similarly, boys are discouraged from expressing fear. In surveys carried out on student populations, it has been found that the admission of certain fears by men is felt to be socially undesirable.

The social influences that obscure the accurate expression of fear complicate the intrinsic difficulties in recognizing and describing our own experiences or predicted experiences. For instance, it is regularly found that some people who state that they are fearful of a particular situation or object are later seen to display comparatively fearless behaviour when confronting the specified fear stimulus. Subjective reports of fear tend to be of limited value in assessing the intensity of the experience because of the difficulties involved in translating phrases such as 'extremely frightened', 'terrified', and 'slightly anxious' into degrees on a quantitative scale with stable properties.

For these reasons among others, psychologists have extended the study of fear beyond an exclusive reliance on subjective reports by including indices of physiological change and measures of overt behaviour. It is helpful to think of fear as comprising four main components: the subjective experience of apprehension, associated physiological changes, outward expressions of fear, and attempts to avoid or escape certain situations. When these four components fail to correspond, as they commonly do, problems arise. People can experience subjective fear but remain outwardly calm and, if tested, show none of the expected psychophysiological reactions. There can also be subjective fear in the absence of any attempt at avoidance. The fact that the four components do not always correspond makes it helpful in speaking of fear to specify which component one is referring to.

In our everyday exchanges we rely for the most part on people telling us of their fears and then supplementing this information by interpreting their facial and other bodily expressions. Unfortunately this kind of interpretation, when made in the absence of supporting contextual cues, can be misleading. Moreover, facial and related expressions register only certain kinds of fear, particularly those of an acute and episodic nature; diffuse and chronic fears are less visible. We may easily observe signs of fear in an anxious passenger as an aircraft descends, but fail to recognize it in a person who is intensely apprehensive about ageing.

While there are many types of fear, certain of them, such as neurotic fears, have understandably been studied more intensively than others. Among the many types, a major division can be made between acute and chronic fears. Acute fears are generally provoked by tangible stimuli or situations and subside quite readily when the frightening stimulus is removed or avoided (see phobias): the fear of snakes is an example. (A less common type of acute fear is the sudden onset of panic which seems to have no tangible source, can last for as long as an hour or more, and often leaves a residue of discomfort.) Chronic fears tend to be more complex but are like the acute types in that they may or may not be tied to tangible sources of provocation. The fear of being alone is an example of a chronic, tangible fear. Examples of chronic, intangible fears are by their very nature difficult to specify; one simply feels persistently uneasy and anxious for unidentified reasons — a chronic state of aching fear that has been better described by novelists than by psychologists.

Repeated or prolonged exposure to fearsome stimulation can give rise to enduring changes in behaviour, feelings, and psychophysiological functioning. Clear examples of such changes are encountered during war conditions and after. Adverse reactions can be classified in two broad categories: combat neuroses, which are persisting fear and related disturbances, and combat fatigue (far more common), which is a temporary disturbance readily reversed by rest and sedation. Wartime observations and research on animal subjects suggest that the fear and anxiety experienced by many patients with psychological troubles may well give rise to enduring psychophysiological changes, as well as to the more obvious behavioural changes such as marked and persistent avoidance of the frightening stimuli. However, given the nature of chronic anxiety, it can be difficult to confirm causal connections between it and specific psychological and physiological changes (a major problem, incidentally, in studying psychosomatic disorders).

A distinction is sometimes made between fear and anxiety: fear is taken to refer to feelings of apprehension about tangible and predominantly realistic dangers, whereas anxiety is sometimes taken to refer to feelings of apprehension which are difficult to relate to tangible sources of stimulation. Inability to identify the source of a fear is often regarded as the hallmark of anxiety, and, in psychodynamic theories such as psychoanalysis, is said to be a result of repression.

A clinically useful distinction can be made between focal and diffuse fears. Generally speaking, focal fears are more easily modified, despite the fact that they are often of long standing.

The distinction between innate and acquired fears is an interesting one, although it may be of little practical value. The impact of early behaviourism, with its massive emphasis on the importance of acquired behaviour, led to the demise of the notion that some fears may be innately determined. Even the possibility of such fears existing in animals was only reluctantly conceded. In recent years, however, the possible occurrence of innately determined fears in human beings has once again come under serious consideration. See Dolan and Morris (2000) for recent neuroimaging perspectives on innate and acquired fear.

The major causes of fear include exposure to traumatic stimulation, repeated exposure to subtraumatic (sensitizing) situations, observations (direct or indirect) of people exhibiting fear, and the receipt of fear-provoking information. Fears usually diminish with repeated exposure to a mild or toned-down version of the frightening situation. This decline in fear as a consequence of repetition can be facilitated by superimposing on the fearful reactions a counteracting influence, such as relaxation.

Fears can be thought of as existing in a state of balance, in which repeated exposures to a fear-evoking situation may lead to an increase in fear (sensitization) or, at other times and in other circumstances, to a decrease (desensitization). The balance tilts in the direction of increased or decreased fear according to the type of exposure, intensity of stimulation, the person's state of alertness, and other factors.

Fear and its first cousin, anxiety, play a major part in most neurotic disorders, and clinicians and their research colleagues have explored the effects of a variety of therapeutic means. Leaving aside the pharmacological methods which are often capable of dampening fear (but seldom of removing it), we are left with psychological methods. These can be divided into two main types: those that attempt to reduce the fear or anxiety directly (as in behaviour therapy) and those that attempt to modify its putative underlying causes (as in psychoanalysis and related techniques). The direct methods are comparatively new and are largely products of experimental psychology. The best-established and most extensively used, desensitization, has been joined recently by flooding and by modelling, methods that involve repeated practice in confronting the frightening situation. Of the indirect methods, psychoanalysis is of course the most famous and influential, and it has spawned many derivations. Most of them, like psychoanalysis itself, were developed by psychiatrists or psychologists. The most widely practised is psychotherapy (a confusingly wide term covering many types of activity), and not psychoanalysis, which is a comparatively rare form of therapy. Although there are many different techniques, the indirect methods share the assumption that a thorough exploration of matters seemingly unrelated to the pertinent fear is a prerequisite for its reduction.

There is no generally accepted theory to account for the genesis and persistence of fears. The psychoanalytic theory, originally proposed by Freud, has undergone little revision, despite a great deal of criticism. The conditioning theory, derived from the work of Pavlov, appears incapable of providing a comprehensive account. The conditioning theory postulates that any neutral object or situation which is associated with painful or fearful experiences will acquire fear-evoking properties. Although there is some evidence to support this theory, there remain important observations that cannot be accommodated by it, such as the non-random distribution of human fears, and the non-appearance of fears in predicted circumstances.

Although fearlessness is often regarded as synonymous with courage, there is some value in distinguishing it from a particular view of courage: the occurrence of perseverance despite fear, which is perhaps the purest form of courage — it certainly requires greater endurance and effort. Despite frequent exposure to dangerous and stressful situations, most people acquire few lasting fears. Wartime surveys testify to the resilience of people subjected to air raids. Experimental analysis of programmes designed to train people in such dangerous tasks as parachute jumping provides further information about the nature of courage. Although fear during or immediately after exposure to danger is a common reaction, we apparently have the capacity to recover quickly. And our capacity to persevere and adapt when faced by fear and stress is remarkable.

Training for courage plays an important part in preparing people to undertake dangerous jobs, such as fire fighting or parachuting. One element of such training, gradual and graduated practice in the tasks likely to be encountered, seems to be of particular importance. This aspect of courage training is strikingly similar to the clinical method of reducing fear known as desensitization.

In the early stages of courage training, the probability of success is improved if the subject's motivation is raised appropriately, encouraging perseverance despite subjective apprehension. The successful practice of courageous behaviour should lead to a decrease in subjective fear and finally to a state of fearlessness. Novice parachute jumpers display courage when they persevere with their jumps despite subjective fear; veteran jumpers, having successfully adapted to the situation, no longer experience fear when jumping: they have moved from courage to fearlessness.

(Published 1987)

— S. Rachman

    Bibliography
  • Dolan, R. J., and Morris, J. S. (2000). 'The functional anatomy of innate and acquired fear: perspectives from neuroimaging'. In Lane, R. D. and Nadel, L. (ed.), Cognitive Neuroscience of Emotion.
  • Freud, S. (1905). 'The analysis of a phobia in a five-year-old boy'. In Collected Papers, vol. iii.
  • Gray, J. A. (1971). The Psychology of Fear and Stress.
  • Marks, I. (1969). Fears and Phobias.
  • Rachman, S. (1978). Fear and Courage.


Word Tutor:

courage

Top
pronunciation

IN BRIEF: To feel the fear and still be able to face danger, pain, or trouble.

pronunciation Live courage, breathe courage and give courage. — D.G. Mukerji.

LearnThatWord.com is a free vocabulary and spelling program where you only pay for results!

Quotes About:

Courage

Top

Quotes:

"Courage and perseverance have a magical talisman, before which difficulties disappear and obstacles vanish into air." - John Quincy Adams

"Courage that grows from constitution often forsakes a man when he has occasion for it; courage which arises from a sense of duty acts ;in a uniform manner." - Joseph Addison

"There is another side to chivalry. If it dispenses leniency, it may with equal justification invoke control." - Freda Adler

"As a rock on the seashore he standeth firm, and the dashing of the waves disturbeth him not. He raiseth his head like a tower on a hill, and the arrows of fortune drop at his feet. In the instant of danger, the courage of his heart here, and scorn to fly." - Akhenaton

"Often the test of courage is not to die but to live." - Vittorio, Conte Di Alfieri

"Whether you be man or woman you will never do anything in this world without courage. It is the greatest quality of the mind next to honor." - James Allen

See more famous quotes about Courage

  See crossword solutions for the clue Courage.
Fortitudo, by Sandro Botticelli

Courage (also bravery, boldness, fearlessness, mettle, fortitude, or intrepidity) is the ability to confront fear, pain, danger, uncertainty, or intimidation. Courage is acting in spite of fear. "Physical courage" is courage in the face of physical pain, hardship, death, or threat of death, while "moral courage" is the ability to act rightly in the face of popular opposition, shame, scandal, or discouragement.

Contents

Theories of courage

Western antiquity and Middle Ages

As a [desirable] quality, courage is discussed broadly in Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics, where its vice of shortage is cowardice and its vice of excess is recklessness.[1] 'live life not without fear, but with gallantry against it' : Christian L J Silver

In Roman Catholicism, courage is referred to as "Fortitude"[2] as one of the four cardinal virtues, along with prudence, justice, and temperance. ("Cardinal" in this sense means "pivotal"; it is one of the four cardinal virtues because to possess any virtue, a person must be able to sustain it in the face of difficulty.) This is well expressed by Maya Angelou:

Courage is the most important of the virtues, because without courage you can't practice any other virtue consistently. You can practice any virtue erratically, but nothing consistently without courage.

Or this insight from Winston Churchill:

Courage is rightly esteemed the first of human qualities ... because it is the quality that guarantees all others.

In both Catholicism and Anglicanism, courage is also one of the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit.

Eastern traditions

The Tao Te Ching states that courage is derived from love (" loving causes ability brave") and explains: "One of courage, with audacity, will die. One of courage, but gentle, spares death. From these two kinds of courage arise harm and benefit."[3][4]

Courage (shauriya) and Patience (dhairya) appear as the first two of ten characteristics (lakshana) of dharma in the Hindu Manusmruti, besides forgiveness (kshama), tolerance (dama), honesty (asthaya), physical restraint (indriya nigraha), cleanliness (shouchya), perceptiveness (dhi), knowledge (vidhya), truthfulness (satya), and control of anger (akrodh). Islamic beliefs also present courage and self-control as a key factor in facing the Devil and in some cases Jihad to a lesser extent; many believe this because of the courage (through peace and patience) the Prophets of the past displayed against people who despised them for their beliefs.

Modernity

Søren Kierkegaard opposed courage to angst, while Paul Tillich opposed an existential courage to be to non-being, fundamentally equating it with religion:

"Courage is the self-affirmation of being in spite of the fact of non-being. It is the act of the individual self in taking the anxiety of non-being upon itself by affirming itself ... in the anxiety of guilt and condemnation. ... every courage to be has openly or covertly a religious root. For religion is the state of being grasped by the power of being itself."[5]

J.R.R. Tolkien identified in his 1936 lecture "Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics" a "Northern 'theory of courage'"—the heroic or "virtuous pagan" insistence to do the right thing even in the face of certain defeat without promise of reward or salvation:

It is the strength of the northern mythological imagination that it faced this problem, put the monsters in the centre, gave them victory but no honor, and found a potent and terrible solution in naked will and courage. 'As a working theory absolutely impregnable.' So potent is it, that while the older southern imagination has faded forever into literary ornament, the northern has power, as it were, to revive its spirit even in our own times. It can work, as it did even with the goðlauss Viking, without gods: martial heroism as its own end.[6]


Virtuous pagan heroism or courage in this sense is "trusting in your own strength," as observed by Jacob Grimm in his Teutonic Mythology,

Men who, turning away in utter disgust and doubt from the heathen faith, placed their reliance on their own strength and virtue. Thus in the Sôlar lioð 17 we read of Vêbogi and Râdey â sik þau trûðu, "in themselves they trusted"[7]


Ernest Hemingway famously defined courage as "grace under pressure."[8]

Civil courage

Civil courage (sometimes also referred to as "Social courage") is defined by many different standards. In general, the term is usually referred to when civilians stand up against something that is deemed unjust and evil, knowing that the consequences of their action might lead to their death, injury or some other form of significant harm.[citation needed]

In some countries (e.g. France[9] and Germany)[10] civil courage (Duty to rescue) is enforced by law under certain circumstances; this generally excludes assistance that would endanger the person who is offering it.

Symbolism

Its accompanying animal is the lion. Often, Fortitude is depicted as having tamed the ferocious lion. Cf. e.g. the Tarot trump called Strength. It is sometimes seen in the Catholic Church as a depiction of Christ's triumph over sin (see Revelation 5:5). It also is a symbol in some cultures as a savior of the people who live in a community with sin and corruption.

Awards

Several awards claim to recognize courageous actions, including:

  • The Victoria Cross is the highest military award that may be received by members of the armed forces in the British Army and other Commonwealth countries for valour "in the face of the enemy." A total of 1,356 have been awarded to individuals, 13 since World War II.
  • The Medal of Honor is the highest military decoration awarded by the United States government. It is bestowed on members of the United States armed forces who distinguish themselves "conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty while engaged in an action against an enemy of the United States”.
  • Distinguished Service Cross (United States) is the second highest military decoration that can be awarded to a member of the United States Army, awarded for extreme gallantry and risk of life in actual combat with an armed enemy force.
  • The Carnegie Hero Fund - was established to recognize persons who perform extraordinary acts of heroism in civilian life in the United States and Canada, and to provide financial assistance for those disabled and the dependents of those killed saving or attempting to save others.
  • The Profile in Courage Award is a private award given to recognize displays of courage similar to those John F. Kennedy described in his book Profiles in Courage. It is given to individuals (often elected officials) who, by acting in accord with their conscience, risked their careers or lives by pursuing a larger vision of the national, state or local interest in opposition to popular opinion or pressure from constituents or other local interests.
  • The Civil Courage Prize is a human rights award which is awarded to "steadfast resistance to evil at great personal risk — rather than military valor." It is awarded by the Trustees of The Train Foundation annually and may be awarded posthumously.
  • Courage to Care Award is a plaque with miniature bas-reliefs depicting the backdrop for the rescuers’ exceptional deeds during the Nazis’ persecution, deportation and murder of millions of Jews.
  • The Ivan Allen Jr. Prize for Social Courage is a prize awarded by Georgia Institute of Technology to individuals who uphold the legacy of former Atlanta Mayor Ivan Allen Jr., whose actions in Atlanta, Georgia and testimony before congress in support of the 1963 Civil Rights Bill legislation set a standard for courage during the turbulent civil rights era of the 1960s.

As a strength in psychology

From the end of the twentieth century, courage has been a concept generating interest in the field of psychology. In 2004, Christopher Peterson and Martin Seligman’s book, Character Strengths and Virtues proposed a uniform way of classifying positive traits that highlight the elements of humanity that uplift humanity, Courage being among the key virtues. In addition, Seligman and Peterson founded the Virtues in Action (VIA) Institute and created the VIA survey which hope to bring this uniform categorization of human strengths to the masses. The VIA classifies human strengths in six, broad categories: Wisdom and Knowledge, Courage, Humanity, Justice, Temperance, Transcendence. Courage is broken down into four main subcategories: Bravery, Perseverance, Honesty, and Zest.

Bravery

Bravery is the subcategory most people generally associate with Courage.[11] It is defined as “the ability to stand up for what is right in difficult situations.”[11] As opposed to less sophisticated definitions that simply categorize bravery as fearlessness or acting when an observer would be afraid.[12] There are several forms of this bravery. Physical bravery involves acting in spite of possible harm to one’s body. Moral bravery involves acting in a way that enhances what one believes to be good in spite of social disapproval and possible backlash. A third, theoretically newer, definition of bravery is psychological bravery which involves things such as overcoming one’s own addictive habits, irrational anxieties, and harmful dependent relationships. Psychological bravery means acting against one’s own natural inclinations and facing fears which might not have any societal moral implications.[13] Bravery works well as a virtue in the VIA classification system because it is highly regarded across cultures and has obvious benefits for those surrounded by brave people. Possible problems with viewing bravery as a classifiable human strength is that it could be argued that bravery is not trait-like since it only comes out under certain circumstances.[11] The counterargument to this claim is that bravery is trait-like in the same way creativity is considered a trait; both appear only in certain situations.[11] The VIA claims that it is a positive psychological trait that can be found and cultivated in certain individuals.

Perseverance

Perseverance falls under the larger category of courage because it often involves continuing along a path in the midst of and after having faced opposition and perhaps failure. Perseverance involves the ability to seek a goal in spite of obstacles and has been shown in human and animal studies to be a lasting trait with individual differences.[14] In order to persevere at a task, a person must be able to suppress desires to give up and pursue an easier task, a metacognitive understanding that the ends justify the persevering means. But beyond meta cognition, a person high in perseverance is able to overcome low self-esteem and estimations that one cannot do the task as well as discouragement from peers and the desire to present oneself well.[15] As a categorical psychological strength, perseverance is regarded highly by society as opposed to laziness. However, its one weakness as an entry on the VIA as noted by Peterson and Seligman is that it may not be discernible from other human strengths and virtues. It especially can be seen as overlapping with self-control. However Peterson and Seligman maintain its distinctiveness, pointing out that perseverance “is explicitly shown across time, whereas control and regulation of oneself have a more here-and-now flavor”.[11] More research needs to be done in this area to empirically show that perseverance belongs in its own distinct category.

Honesty

As defined by positive psychologists, honesty and authenticity as a subset of courage means more than simply telling the truth. It involves integrity in all areas of one’s life and the ability to be true to oneself and one’s role in the world across circumstances.[11] Though perhaps one would not immediately associate honesty with courage, there are obvious situations in life where to be honest and authentic requires a great deal of strength in the midst of fear. The positive view societies have of honesty can be seen from the fact that it is something people try to develop in young children and adolescents.[11] While all people seem to grow in their understanding of the moral importance of honest and integrity as they grow older,[16] there are certain individuals who seem to especially excel in this human strength. This trait is important in many areas of life, so much so that many measurements have been developed in an effort to identify especially honest individuals. These measurements test both overt honesty, the thoughts one has about blatant dishonesty such as stealing, and covert honesty, which is very similar to conscientiousness and dependability.[11] Of all the subcategories under courage in the VIA, Honesty shows the most promise as a distinct, well defined area of classification.[11]

Zest

Of the four categories involved in courage, zest or vitality, is the one that has the most weaknesses as a classification. It is defined as, “feeling alive, being full of zest, and displaying enthusiasm for any and all activities”.[11] This is a category that is influenced not only by subjective psychological factors, but also objective factors affecting one’s physical well-being such as chronic pain.[17] The reason Peterson and Seligman group Zest together with other courageous virtues is that Zest most often comes forth as a character strength in the midst of trying circumstances. For example, it has been shown that people’s subjective perception of their situation when faced with chronic pain, judging their perceived ability to handle the situation and their general positivity, is able to influence their well-being. This zest can be shown to be trait-like across situations.[17]

See also

References

  1. ^ Aristotle, Nichomachean Ethics, 1103b15-20, 1104a15-25, 1104b1-10, 1107a30-1107b5, 1108b15-35, 1109a5-15, 1115a5-1117b25, 1129b20-5, 1137a20-5, 1144b5-10, 1167a20, 1177a30-b1, 1178a10-5, 1178a30-5, 1178b10-5, in Aristotle, Translation, Introduction, and Commentary, Broadie, Sarah, & Rowe, C., Oxford University Press, 2002.
  2. ^ CCEL.org
  3. ^ Chapter 67 and 73, Tao Te Ching (C. Ganson uses the word "courage", but the Mitchell translation does not.)
  4. ^ Zhonwen.com, Tao Te Ching with Hanzi translations
  5. ^ Paul Tillich, The Courage To Be (London: Collins, 1952), 152-183.
  6. ^ Tolkien, JRR. "Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics". The Tolkien Estate. pp. 25. Archived from the original on 2007-10-15. http://web.archive.org/web/20071015113632/http://completejrrt.tv/tta_open/2$B.+Old+English+Tales+and+Literary+Works%5bSection%5d/8$The+Monsters+And+The+Critics%5bBook%5d/1$Beowulf..+The+Monsters+and+the+Critics%5bChapter%5d/0025.htm. Retrieved 2008-04-25. 
  7. ^ Grimm, Jacob (1835) (in German). Deutsche Mythologie (Teutonic Mythology) (1 ed.). Dieterich: Göttingen. 
  8. ^ Carter, Richard. "Celebrating Ernest Hemingway's Century". neh.gov. National Endowment for the Humanities. http://www.neh.gov/news/humanities/1999-07/hemingway.html. Retrieved 2009-06-19. 
  9. ^ French Criminal Code §63(2)
  10. ^ German Criminal Code §323c
  11. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Peterson, 2004
  12. ^ Evans, 1981
  13. ^ Putman, 1997
  14. ^ Eisenberger, 1992
  15. ^ Zimmerman, 1995
  16. ^ Bussey, 1992
  17. ^ a b Ryan, 1997

Further reading

  • Avramenko, Richard. Courage: The Politics of Life and Limb (University of Notre Dame Press, 2011)
  • Catholic Encyclopedia "Fortitude"
  • Summa Theologica "Second Part of the Second Part" See Questions 123-140
  • Ernest Becker, The Denial of Death (New York: The Free Press, 1973).
  • Douglas N. Walton, Courage: A philosophical investigation (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1986).
  • Stephen Palmquist, "Angst and the Paradox of Courage" hkbu.edu.hk, Chapter XII in The Tree of Philosophy (Hong Kong: Philopsychy Press, 2000)
  • Bussey, K. (1992). Lying and truthfulness: Children’s definitions, standards, and evaluative reactions. Child Development, 63, 129-137.
  • Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of gal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 4, 227-268.
  • Eisenberger, R. (1992). Learned industriousness. Psychological Review, 99, 248-267.
  • Evans, P. D., & White, D. G. (1981). Towards an empirical definition of courage. Behaviour Research and Therepy, 19, 419-424.
  • Peterson, C., & Seligman M. E. P. (2004). Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification. New York: Oxford University Press. 197-289.
  • Putnam, D. (1997). Psychological courage. Philosophy, Psychiatry, and Psychology, 4, 1-11.
  • Ryan, R. M., & Frederick, C. (1997). On energy, personality, and health: Subjective vitality as a dynamic reflection of well-being. Journal of Personality, 65, 529-565.
  • Zimmerman, Barry J. (1995). Self-regulation involves more than meta cognition: A social cognitive perspective. Educational Psychologist. pp. 30, 217-221. 
  • Ian Miller, William (2000). The Mystery of Courage. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 067400826X. 

External links


Translations:

Courage

Top

Dansk (Danish)
n. - mod

idioms:

  • the courage of one's convictions    sine meningers mod

Nederlands (Dutch)
moed

Français (French)
n. - courage

idioms:

  • have the courage of one's convictions    avoir le courage de ses convictions

Deutsch (German)
n. - Mut

idioms:

  • have the courage of one's convictions    seinem Standpunkt treu sein

Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - θάρρος, κουράγιο, ανδρεία

idioms:

  • the courage of one's convictions    το θάρρος των πεποιθήσεών μου

Italiano (Italian)
coraggio

idioms:

  • pluck up courage    farsi coraggio
  • the courage of one's convictions    il coraggio delle proprie idee

Português (Portuguese)
n. - coragem (f)

idioms:

  • pluck up courage    ser corajoso
  • the courage of one's convictions    ter coragem de manter suas convicções

Русский (Russian)
храбрость

idioms:

  • pluck up courage    собираться с духом
  • the courage of one's convictions    действовать согласно своим убеждениям

Español (Spanish)
n. - coraje, valor, valentía

idioms:

  • have the courage of one's convictions    ser consecuente con sus principios, tener el coraje de las propias convicciones

Svenska (Swedish)
n. - mod, tapperhet

中文(简体)(Chinese (Simplified))
勇气, 精神

idioms:

  • the courage of one's convictions    按自己意念说, 按自己意念做的勇气

中文(繁體)(Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 勇氣, 精神

idioms:

  • the courage of one's convictions    按自己意念說, 按自己意念做的勇氣

한국어 (Korean)
n. - 용기

idioms:

  • the courage of one's convictions    자기 소신대로 행동하다

日本語 (Japanese)
n. - 勇気

idioms:

  • the courage of one's convictions    自分の信ずるところに従う

العربيه (Arabic)
‏(الاسم) شجاعه, بساله, اقدام, جرأة‏

עברית (Hebrew)
n. - ‮אומץ-לב‬


 
 

 

Copyrights:

American Heritage Dictionary. The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition Copyright © 2007, 2000 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Updated in 2009. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.  Read more
Roget's Thesaurus. Roget's II: The New Thesaurus, Third Edition by the Editors of the American Heritage® Dictionary Copyright © 1995 byHoughton Mifflin Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.  Read more
American Heritage Dictionary of Idioms. The American Heritage® Dictionary of Idioms by Christine Ammer. Copyright © 1997 by The Christine Ammer 1992 Trust. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.  Read more
Answers Corporation Antonyms by Answers.com. © 1999-present by Answers Corporation. All rights reserved.  Read more
Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Copyright © 1994, 1996, 2005 by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.  Read more
Oxford Companion to the Mind. The Oxford Companion to the Mind. Second Edition. Copyright © Oxford University Press, 2004. All rights reserved.  Read more
Word Tutor. Copyright © 2004-present by eSpindle Learning, a 501(c) nonprofit organization. All rights reserved.
eSpindle provides personalized spelling and vocabulary tutoring online; sign up free Read more
Quotes About. Copyright © 2005 QuotationsBook.com. All rights reserved.  Read more
 Rhymes. Oxford University Press. © 2006, 2007 All rights reserved.  Read more
Bradford's Crossword Solver's Dictionary. Collins Bradford's Crossword Solver's Dictionary © Anne Bradford, 1986, 1993, 1997, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2008 HarperCollins Publishers All rights reserved.  Read more
Wikipedia on Answers.com. This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article Courage Read more
Translations. Copyright © 2007, WizCom Technologies Ltd. All rights reserved.  Read more

Follow us
Facebook Twitter
YouTube

Mentioned in

» More» More