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craniosacral therapy

 
Medical Encyclopedia: Craniosacral Therapy
 
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Definition

Craniosacral therapy is a holistic healing practice that uses very light touching to balance the craniosacral system in the body, which includes the bones, nerves, fluids, and connective tissues of the cranium and spinal area.

Description

Origins

The first written reference to the movement of the spinal nerves and its importance in life, clarity, and "bringing quiet to the heart" is found in a 4,000-year-old text from China. Craniosacral work was referred to as "the art of listening." Bone setters in the Middle Ages also sensed the subtle movements of the body. They used these movements to help reset fractures and dislocations and to treat headaches.

In the early 1900s, the research of Dr. William Sutherland, an American osteopathic physician, detailed the movement of the cranium and pelvis. Before his research it was believed that the cranium was a solid immovable mass. Sutherland reported that the skull is actually made up of 22 separate and movable bones that are connected by layers of tissue. He called his work cranial osteopathy. Nephi Cotton, an American chiropractor and contemporary of Sutherland, called this approach craniology. The graduates of these two disciplines have refined and enhanced these original approaches and renamed their work as sacro-occipital technique, cranial movement therapy, or craniosacral therapy.

Dr. John Upledger, an osteopathic physician, and others at the Department of Biomechanics at Michigan State University, College of Osteopathic Medicine learned of Sutherland's research and developed it further. He researched the clinical observations of various osteopathic physicians. This research provided the basis for Upledger's work that he named craniosacral therapy.

Craniosacral therapy addresses the craniosacral system. This system includes the cranium, spine, and sacrum that are connected by a continuous membrane of connective tissue deep inside the body, called the dura mater. The dura mater also encloses the brain and the central nervous system. Sutherland noticed that cerebral spinal fluid rises and falls within the compartment of the dura mata. He called this movement the primary respiratory impulse; today it is known as the craniosacral rhythm (CSR) or the cranial wave.

Craniosacral therapists can most easily feel the CSR in the body by lightly touching the base of the skull or the sacrum. During a session, they feel for disturbances in the rate, amplitude, symmetry, and quality of flow of the CSR. A therapist uses very gentle touch to balance the flow of the CSR. Once the cerebrospinal fluid moves freely, the body's natural healing responses can function.

A craniosacral session generally lasts 30–90 minutes. The client remains fully clothed and lays down on a massage table while the therapist gently assesses the flow of the CSR. Upledger describes several techniques which may be used in a craniosacral therapy session. The first is energy cyst release. "This technique is a hands-on method of releasing foreign or disruptive energies from the patient's body. Energy cysts may cause the disruption of the tissues and organs were they are located." The therapist feels these cysts in the client's body and gently releases the blockage of energy.

Sutherland first wrote about a second practice called direction of energy. In this technique the therapist intends energy to pass from one of his hands, through the patient, into the other hand.

— Linda Chrisman


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Alternative Medicine Encyclopedia: Craniosacral Therapy
 
Home > Library > Health > Alternative Medicine Encyclopedia

Definition

Craniosacral therapy is a holistic healing practice that uses very light touching to balance the craniosacral system in the body, which includes the bones, nerves, fluids, and connective tissues of the cranium and spinal area.

Origins

The first written reference to the movement of the spinal nerves and its importance in life, clarity, and "bringing quiet to the heart" is found in a 4,000-year-old text from China. Craniosacral work was referred to as "the art of listening." Bone setters in the Middle Ages also sensed the subtle movements of the body. They used these movements to help reset fractures and dislocations and to treat headaches.

In the early 1900s, the research of Dr. William Sutherland, an American osteopathic physician, detailed the movement of the cranium and pelvis. Before his research it was believed that the cranium was a solid immovable mass. Sutherland reported that the skull is actually made up of 22 separate and movable bones that are connected by layers of tissue. He called his work cranial osteopathy. Nephi Cotton, an American chiropractor and contemporary of Sutherland, called this approach craniology. The graduates of these two disciplines have refined and enhanced these original approaches and renamed their work as sacro-occipital technique, cranial movement therapy, or craniosacral therapy.

Dr. John Upledger, an osteopathic physician, and others at the Department of Biomechanics at Michigan State University, College of Osteopathic Medicine learned of Sutherland's research and developed it further. He researched the clinical observations of various osteopathic physicians. This research provided the basis for Upledger's work which he named craniosacral therapy.

Benefits

According to Upledger, craniosacral therapy is ideally suited for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, headaches, chronic middle ear infection, pain, and general health maintenance. It is recommended for autism, fibromyalgia, heart disease, osteoarthritis, pneumonia, rheumatoid arthritis, chronic sinus infections, and gastroenteritis (inflammation of the lining of the stomach or small intestine). It is also used with other therapies to treat chronic fatigue syndrome, back pain, and menstrual irregularity. In addition, other craniosacral practitioners have reported benefits for eye dysfunction, dyslexia, depression, motor coordination difficulties, temporomandibular joint dysfunction (TMD), hyperactivity, colic, asthma in babies, floppy baby syndrome, whiplash, cerebral palsy, certain birth defects, and other central nervous system disorders.

Description

Craniosacral therapy addresses the craniosacral system. This system includes the cranium, spine, and sacrum which are connected by a continuous membrane of connective tissue deep inside the body, called the dura mater. The dura mater also encloses the brain and the central nervous system. Sutherland noticed that cerebral spinal fluid rises and falls within the compartment of the dura mata. He called this movement the primary respiratory impulse; today it is known as the craniosacral rhythm (CSR) or the cranial wave.

Craniosacral therapists can most easily feel the CSR in the body by lightly touching the base of the skull or the sacrum. During a session they feel for disturbances in the rate, amplitude, symmetry, and quality of flow of the CSR. A therapist uses very gentle touch to balance the flow of the CSR. Once the cerebrospinal fluid moves freely, the body's natural healing responses can function.

A craniosacral session generally lasts 30–90 minutes. The client remains fully clothed and lays down on a massage table while the therapist gently assesses the flow of the CSR. Upledger describes several techniques which may be used in a craniosacral therapy session. The first is energy cyst release. "This technique is a hands-on method of releasing foreign or disruptive energies from the patient's body. Energy cysts may cause the disruption of the tissues and organs were they are located." The therapist feels these cysts in the client's body and gently releases the blockage of energy.

Sutherland first wrote about a second practice called direction of energy. In this technique the therapist intends energy to pass from one of his hands, through the patient, into the other hand.

The third technique is called myofascial release. This is a manipulative form of bodywork that releases tension in the fascia or connective tissue of the body. This form of bodywork uses stronger touch.

Upledger's fourth technique is position of release. This involves following the client's body into the positions in which an injury occurred and holding it there. When the rhythm of the CSR suddenly stops the therapist knows that the trauma has been released.

The last technique is somatoemotional release. This technique was developed by Upledger and is an offshoot of craniosacral therapy. It is used to release the mind and body of the residual effects of trauma and injury that are "locked in the tissues."

The cost of a session varies due to the length of time needed and the qualifications of the therapist. The cost may be covered by insurance when the therapy is performed or prescribed by a licensed health care provider.

Precautions

This gentle approach is extremely safe in most cases. However, craniosacral therapy is not recommended in cases of acute systemic infections, recent skull fracture, intracranial hemorrhage or aneurysm, or herniation of the medulla oblongata (brain stem). Craniosacral therapy does not preclude the use of other medical approaches.

Side Effects

Some people may experience mild discomfort after a treatment. This may be due to re-experiencing a trauma or injury or a previously numb area may come back to life and be more sensitive. These side effects are temporary.

Research & General Acceptance

More than 40 scientific papers have been published that document the various effects of craniosacral therapy. There are also 10 authoritative textbooks on this therapy. The most notable scientific papers include Viola M. Fryman's work documenting the successful treatment of 1,250 newborn children with birth defects. Edna Lay and Stephen Blood showed the effects on TMD, and John Wood documented results with psychiatric disorders. The American Dental Association has found craniosacral therapy to be an effective adjunct to orthodontic work. However, the conventional medical community has not endorsed these techniques.

Training & Certification

Craniosacral therapy is offered as part of the standard training in osteopathy, chiropractic, and rolfing. Massage therapists, nurses, dentists, physical therapists, and other health care practitioners can receive training through a series of workshops and seminars. The Upledger Institute offers two levels of national certification, involving a rigorous three part exam process of written, oral, and hands-on testing. The Milne Institute certifies practitioners through a two year training program that covers anatomy, physiology, symptomatology, psychology, meditation practice, and training in sensitivity, perception and intuition. Today there are around 40,000 practitioners certified to practice crainiosacral therapy.

Resources

Books

Knaster, Mirka. Discovering the Body's Wisdom. New York: Bantam Books, 1996.

Milne, Hugh. Heart of Listening: A Visionary Approach to Craniosacral Work: Anatomy. Technique, Transcendence. 2nd ed. Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books, 1998.

Upledger, John E. "CranioSacral Therapy." In Clinician's Complete Reference to Complementary and Alternative Medicine. Donald Novey, ed. St. Louis, MO: 2000.

Upledger, John E. Your Inner Physician and You: CranioSacral Therapy Somatoemotional Release. Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books, 1991.

Upledger, John E. and John Vredevoogd. Craniosacral Therapy. Seattle: Eastland Press, 1983.

Organizations

Milne Institute Inc. P.O. Box 2716, Monterey, CA 93942-2716. (831) 649-1825. Fax: (831) 649-1826. http://www.milneinstitute.com. milneinst@aol.com.

Upledger Institute. 11211 Prosperity Farms Road, Palm Beach Gardens, FL 33410. (800) 233-5880. Fax: (561) 622-4771. http://www.upledger.com.

Other

Milne, Hugh. A Client's Introduction to Craniosacral Work. Pamphlet. Milne Institute.

[Article by: Linda Chrisman]

 
Wikipedia: Craniosacral therapy
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Craniosacral therapy (also called CST, cranial osteopathy, also spelled CranioSacral bodywork or therapy) is a method of Complementary and alternative medicine used by physical therapists, massage therapists, naturopaths, chiropractors and osteopaths. A craniosacral therapy session involves the therapist placing their hands on the patient, which they say allows them to tune into what they call the craniosacral system.[1] By gently working with the spine, the skull and its cranial sutures, diaphragms, and fascia, the restrictions of nerve passages are said to be eased, the movement of cerebrospinal fluid through the spinal cord can be optimized, and misaligned bones are said to be restored to their proper position. Craniosacral therapists use the therapy to treat mental stress, neck and back pain, migraines, TMJ Syndrome, and for chronic pain conditions such as fibromyalgia.[2][3][4] There is no scientific support for major elements of the underlying model,[5] there is little scientific evidence to support the therapy, and research methods that could conclusively evaluate the therapy's effectiveness have not been applied.[6]

Contents

History

Cranial Osteopathy was originated by physician William Sutherland, D.O. (1873-1954), who studied under the founder of osteopathy, Andrew Taylor Still, at the first American School of Osteopathy (now A. T. Still University) in 1898-1900. While looking at a disarticulated skull, Sutherland was struck by the idea that the cranial sutures of the temporal bones where they meet the parietal bones were "beveled, like the gills of a fish, indicating articular mobility for a respiratory mechanism."[7] This idea that the bones of the skull could move was contrary to contemporary anatomical belief.

Sutherland stated that the dural membranes act as 'guy-wires' for the movement of the cranial bones, holding tension for the opposite motion. He used the term reciprocal tension membrane system (RTM) to describe the three Cartesian axes held in reciprocal tension, or tensegrity, creating the cyclic movement of inhalation and exhalation of the cranium. He called this breathing movement the primary respiratory mechanism, and later described its origin as the Breath of Life,[8] from the Book of Genesis (2:7). This was an acknowledgement of the vital force as a fundamental aspect of osteopathic philosophy.

The RTM as described by Sutherland includes the spinal dura, with an attachment to the sacrum. After his observation of the cranial mechanism, Sutherland stated that the sacrum moves synchronously with the cranial bones. Sutherland began to teach this work to other osteopaths from about the 1930s, and tirelessly continued to do so until his death. His work was at first largely rejected by the mainstream osteopathic profession as it challenged some of the closely held beliefs among practitioners of the time.

In the 1940s the American School of Osteopathy started a post-graduate course called 'Osteopathy in the Cranial Field' directed by Sutherland, and was followed by other schools. This new branch of practice became known as "cranial osteopathy". As knowledge of this form of treatment began to spread, Sutherland trained more teachers to meet the demand, notably Drs Viola Frymann, Edna Lay, Howard Lippincott, Anne Wales, Chester Handy and Rollin Becker.

The Cranial Academy was established in the US in 1947, and continues to teach DOs, MDs, and Dentists "an expansion of the general principles of osteopathy"[9] including a special understanding of the central nervous system and primary respiration.

Towards the end of his life Sutherland believed that he began to sense a "power" which generated corrections from inside his clients' bodies without the influence of external forces applied by him as the therapist. Similar to Qi and Prana, this contact with, what he perceived to be the Breath of Life changed his entire treatment focus to one of spiritual reverence and subtle touch.[10] This spiritual approach to the work has come to be known as both 'biodynamic' craniosacral therapy and 'biodynamic' osteopathy, and has had further contributions from practitioners such as Becker and James Jealous (biodynamic osteopathy), and Franklyn Sills (biodynamic craniosacral therapy). The biodynamic approach recognises that embryological forces direct the embryonic cells to create the shape of the body, and places importance on recognition of these formative patterns for maximum therapeutic benefit, as this enhances the ability of the patient to access their health as an expression of the original intention of their existence.

In 1953 Sutherland established the Sutherland Cranial Teaching Foundation as a way of providing a continuity for his teaching.[11]

From 1975 to 1983, osteopathic physician John E. Upledger and neurophysiologist and histologist Ernest W. Retzlaff worked at Michigan State University as clinical researchers and professors. They set up a team of anatomists, physiologists, biophysicists, and bioengineers to investigate the pulse he had observed and study further Sutherland's theory of cranial bone movement. Upledger and Retzlaff went on to publish their results, which they interpreted as support for both the concept of cranial bone movement and the concept of a cranial rhythm.[12][13][14] Later reviews have concluded that there is insufficient support for the principles of craniosacral therapy.[6]

Upledger developed his own treatment style, and when he started to teach his work to a group of students who were not osteopaths he generated the term 'CranioSacral therapy', based on the corresponding movement between cranium and sacrum. Craniosacral therapists often (although not exclusively) work more directly with the emotional and psychological aspects of the patient than osteopaths working in the cranial field[citation needed]. The Upledger Institute, formed in 1987, has many international affiliates[15] united by Upledger's International Association of Healthcare Practitioners.[16]

The Craniosacral Therapy Association of the UK (CSTA) was established in1989 to promote and regulate craniosacral therapists from various UK colleges.[17] Graduates from the College of Craniosacral Therapy who had their own register later became eligible for registration with the CSTA. The Craniosacral Therapy Association of North America was founded in 1998 for the recognition, registration, and as a referral service for certified Craniosacral Therapists and students.[18] The Craniosacral Therapy Association of Australia was established in 2004.[19]

The primary respiratory mechanism
This section has multiple issues. Please help improve the article or discuss these issues on the talk page.

Craniosacral therapy is originally based on Sutherland's 'Cranial Concept',[20] which proposed a system known as the Primary Respiratory Mechanism (PRM). The basis of PRM function has been summarised in the following five ideas:

Inherent motility of the central nervous system

Still described the inherent motion of the brain as a "dynamo," beginning with the cerebellum.[21] The postulated intracranial fluid fluctuation can be described as an interaction between four main components: arterial blood, capillary blood (brain volume), venous blood and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).[22][23] The function of such a mechanism is postulated by Lee[21] as being based on a fulcrum created by the root of the cerebellum and its hemispheres moving in opposite directions, resulting in an increase in pressure which squeezes the third ventricle. The pulsation is described as essentially a recurrent expression of the embryological development of the brain.[21]

Fluctuation of the cerebrospinal fluid

Sutherland used the term "Tide" to describe the inherent fluctuation of fluids in the Primary Respiratory Mechanism. Tide alludes to the concept of ebbing and flowing, but also the contrast between waves on the shore having one rhythm, with the longer rate of lunar tides below. The Tide incorporates not only fluctuation of the CSF, but of a slow oscillation in all the tissues of the body, including the skull.

Practitioners work with cycles of various rates:

  • 10-14 cycles per minute - the original "Cranial Rhythmic Impulse" (CRI)[24] (also described as 6-14 times per minute)[21]
  • 2-3 cycles per minute - the "mid-Tide"
  • 6 cycles every 10 minutes - the "long Tide"

Traube and Hering in the 19th Century reported fluctuations in the arterial rates of dogs (the Traube-Hering wave) at similar rates to those reported by cranial practitioners. In 1960 Lundberg made a continuous recording of intracranial activities of traumatised patients, finding three waves, one of which Lee believes resembles the CRI.[25]

Research suggests that examiners are unable to measure craniosacral motion reliably, as indicated by a lack of interrater agreement among examiners.[26] The authors of this research suggest that this "measurement error may be sufficiently large to render many clinical decisions potentially erroneous". Alternative medicine practitioners have interpreted this result as a product of entrainment between patient and practitioner,[27] a principle which lacks scientific support. Another study[28] demonstrated crainiosacral motion cannot be reliably palpated.

Mobility of the intracranial and intraspinal dural membranes

In 1970 Upledger observed during a surgical procedure on the neck what he described as a slow pulsating movement within the spinal meninges. He attempted to hold the membrane still and found that he could not due to the strength of the action behind the movement.[29]

In craniosacral treatment the membranes act as a fulcrum for fascial restrictions throughout the body, and craniosacral therapists may perceive a change in quality as a result of disturbance such as infection or allergic irritation.

Mobility of the cranial bones

Cranial sutures are conventionally understood to be immobile after fusion, preventing movement between cranial bones. According to Lee,[30] this understanding arose in the mid-1900s and was misinterpreted from the work of authors hoping to correlate suture closure with the chronological age of a skull in archaeological specimens. Lees suggests that the authors not only found that there was no correlation between suture closure and the chronological age of the individual, but also that most skulls demonstrated no suture closure at all except as structural evidence of pathological physical trauma. Lee cites many references giving evidence for mobility in human skulls,[30] and modern anatomy books suggest incomplete fusion of some sutures, for example: "Sutural ligaments may effect an almost immovable bond between large areas of bone... but such immobility cannot be effected at narrow edges of bones in the cranial vault," and: "When such sutures are tied by sutural ligament and periosteum, almost complete immobility results."[31]

It is usual in cranial textbooks to say that the motion of the skull is possible during flexion and extension because the sutures are mobile, especially the spenobasilar synchondrosis (SBS) - the junction between the base of the sphenoid and the occiput. Positional descriptions of cranial lesions traditionally relate to the relationship between the sphenoid and the occiput at this junction. An alternative theory to SBS motion taught in craniosacral training suggests that sutures are "lines of folding", like pre-folded marks on cardboard, rather than necessarily being fully open.[32]

Mobility of the sacrum between the ilia

Mobility of the sacroiliac joint is not contested, although the fulcrum of craniosacral movement is through the body of the second sacral vertebra or segment (S2). The cranial concept recognises the link between the sacrum and occiput via the spinal dura, which is attached to the anterior of the sacrum at S2: as the occiput goes into extension the sacrum nutates, and the converse also occurs. The occiput can therefore be influenced by treatment of the sacrum, and vice-versa.

Craniosacral treatment

A typical craniosacral therapy session is performed with the client fully-clothed, in a supine position, and usually lasts about one hour. In the Upledger method of craniosacral therapy, a ten-step protocol serves as a general guideline, which includes (1) analyzing the base (existing) cranial rhythm, (2) creating a still point in that rhythm at the base of the skull, (3) rocking the sacrum, (4) lengthening the spine in the lumbar-sacral region, (5) addressing the pelvic, respiratory and thoracic diaphragms, (6) releasing the hyoid bone in the throat, and (7-10) addressing each one of the cranial bones. The practitioner may use discretion in using which steps are suitable for each client, and may or may not follow them in sequential order, with time restraints and the extent of trauma being factors.

The therapist places their hands lightly on the patient's body, tuning in to the patient by ‘listening’ with their hands or, in Sutherland's words, "with thinking fingers". Therapeutic contact between the patient and therapist may involve entrainment between patient and practitioner.[27] Patients often report a sense of deep relaxation during and after the treatment session, and may feel light-headed. This is popularly associated with increases in endorphins, but research shows the effects may actually be brought about by the endocannabinoid system.[33]

Craniosacral therapy is claimed to be particularly beneficial in children.[34] Adverse side effects of treatment are uncommon: in a study of craniosacral manipulation in patients with traumatic brain syndrome the level of adverse effects from treatment was 5%.[35] Postgraduate study at the UK Osteopathic Centre for children can lead to the award of an MSc in Paediatric Osteopathy.[36]

Voluntary regulation of cranio-sacral therapy

In the United Kingdom, resulting from a regulation programme facilitated by The Prince's Foundation for Integrated Health, craniosacral therapy is to be regulated on a voluntary basis by the Complementary and Natural Healthcare Council (CNHC) from late 2009 onwards. The standards of competence required for registration are craniosacral therapy techniques plus hands on practice, anatomy and physiology, business, legal and ethical issues. Registrants must have full public and professional liability insurance and annual continuing professional development is a condition of re-registration. The CNHC's work is supported by the UK Department of Health.

Criticisms

Skeptics existing both inside and outside the osteopathic profession level the following criticisms at craniosacral therapy:

  • Lack of evidence for the existence of "cranial bone movement":
Scientific evidence does not support the theories for cranial bone movement claimed by craniosacral practitioners. Scientific research shows that the cranial bones fuse during adolescence, making movement impossible.[37]
  • Lack of evidence for the existence of the "cranial rhythm":
While evidence exists for cerebrospinal fluid pulsation, one study states it is caused by the functioning of the cardiovascular system and not by the workings of the craniosacral system.[38]
  • Lack of evidence linking "cranial rhythm" to disease:
No research to date has supported the link between the "cranial rhythm" and general health.
  • Lack of evidence "cranial rhythm" is detectable by practitioners:
Operator interreliability has been very poor in the studies that have been done. Five studies showed an operator interreliability of zero.[5]
The one study showing some operator interreliability has been criticized as deeply flawed in a report to the British Columbia Office of Health Technology Assessment.[6]

References

  1. ^ http://www.craniosacral.co.uk/ The Craniosacral Therapy Association of the UK
  2. ^ The Upledger Institute (2001). Craniosacral Therapy. Retrieved March 27, 2004.
  3. ^ Ferrett, Mij (1998). What Is Craniosacral Therapy? Retrieved March 27, 2004.
  4. ^ The Sutherland Society General information on Cranial Osteopathy Retrieved January 24, 2006
  5. ^ a b Hartman SE, Norton JM (2002). "Interexaminer reliability and cranial osteopathy" (PDF). Sci Rev Alt Med 6 (1): 23–34. http://faculty.une.edu/com/shartman/sram.pdf. Retrieved on 2007-10-08. 
  6. ^ a b c Green C, Martin CW, Bassett K, Kazanjian A (1999). "A systematic review of craniosacral therapy: biological plausibility, assessment reliability and clinical effectiveness". Complement Ther Med 7 (4): 201–7. doi:10.1016/S0965-2299(99)80002-8. PMID 10709302.  An earlier version of the paper is available without a subscription: Green C, Martin CW, Bassett K, Kazanjian A (1999) (PDF). A systematic review and critical appraisal of the scientific evidence on craniosacral therapy. BCOHTA 99:1J. British Columbia Office of Health Technology Assessment. http://chspr.ubc.ca/files/publications/1999/bco99-01J_cranio.pdf. Retrieved on 2007-10-08. 
  7. ^ Sutherland A (1962). With Thinking Fingers. Indianapolis, IN: Cranial Academy, 13.
  8. ^ Sutherland W (1939). The Cranial Bowl. Mankato, MN: Self-published. Republished 1986, Indianapolis, IN: Cranial Academy.
  9. ^ The Cranial Academy Accessed 10 July 2006
  10. ^ The Cranial Academy Osteopathy in the Cranial Field Retrieved January 24, 2006.
  11. ^ Sutherland Cranial Teaching Foundation Accessed 10 July 2006
  12. ^ Upledger JE (1977) The reproducibility of craniosacral examination findings: a statistical analysis. J Am Osteopath Assoc 76(12):890-899. PMID 7899490
  13. ^ Upledger JE (1978) The relationship of craniosacral examination findings in grade school children with developmental problems. J Am Osteopath Assoc 77(10): 760-776. PMID 659282
  14. ^ Upledger JE, Karni Z (1979) Mechano-electric patterns during craniosacral osteopathic diagnosis and treatment. J Am Osteopath Assoc 78(11):782-791. PMID 582820
  15. ^ The Upledger Institute Accessed 10 July 2006
  16. ^ International Association of Healthcare Practitioners Accessed 10 July 2006
  17. ^ Craniosacral Therapy Association of the UK Accessed 10 July 2006
  18. ^ Craniosacral Therapy Association of North America Accessed 10 July 2006
  19. ^ Craniosacral Therapy Association of Australia Accessed 10 July 2006
  20. ^ Sutherland, W G. The Cranial Bowl. Self-published, 1939. Reprinted by the Cranial Academy, 1948.
  21. ^ a b c d Lee R P. Interface: Mechanisms of Spirit in Osteopathy. Portland, OR: Stillness Press, 2005, pp. 193-8. ISBN 0-9675851-3-9.
  22. ^ Greitz D, Franck A, Nordell B. On the pulsatile nature of intracranial and spinal CSF-circulation demonstrated by MR imaging. Acta Radiol. 1993 Jul;34(4):321-8. PMID 8318291.
  23. ^ Greitz D, Wirestam R, Franck A et al. Pulsatile brain movement and associated hydrodynamics studied by magnetic resonance phase imaging. The Monro-Kellie doctrine revisited. Neuroradiology. 1992;34(5):370-80. PMID 1407513.
  24. ^ Magoun H I (ed.), Osteopathy in the Cranial Field. The Cranial Academy, 3rd edn, 1976, p. 25.
  25. ^ Lundberg N. Continuous recording and conrold of ventricular fluid pressure in neurosurgical practice. Acta Psychiat Neurol Scand, 36:suppl 149, 1960. Quoted in Lee R P. Interface: Mechanisms of Spirit in Osteopathy. Portland, OR: Stillness Press, 2005, p. 199. ISBN 0-9675851-3-9.
  26. ^ Wirth-Pattullo V, Hayes KW. Interrater reliability of craniosacral rate measurements and their relationship with subjects' and examiners' heart and respiratory rate measurements. Phys Ther. 1994 Oct;74(10):908-16; discussion 917-20. PMID 8090842
  27. ^ a b McPartland JM, Mein EA. Entrainment and the cranial rhythmic impulse. Altern Ther Health Med. 1997 Jan;3(1):40-5. PMID 8997803
  28. ^ JS Rogers, PL Witt, MT Gross, JD Hacke, and PA Genova. "Simultaneous palpation of the craniosacral rate at the head and feet: intrarater and interrater reliability and rate comparisons" PHYS THER. Vol. 78, No. 11, November 1998, pp. 1175-1185
  29. ^ Upledger J E, Vredevoogd J. 1983 Craniosacral Therapy Eastland Press. ISBN 0-939616-01-7
  30. ^ a b Lee R P. Interface: Mechanisms of Spirit in Osteopathy. Portland, OR: Stillness Press, 2005, 130-33. ISBN 0-9675851-3-9.
  31. ^ Williams P L, Warwick R, Dyson M, Bannister L H. Gray's Anatomy. Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh, 37th edn, 1989, p. 468. ISBN 0-443-02588-6
  32. ^ Cook, Andrew, An alternative to Spenobasilar Synchondrosis (SBS) Motion. Self-published online, September 2005. PDF
  33. ^ McPartland JM, Giuffrida A, King J et al. Cannabimimetic effects of osteopathic manipulative treatment. J Am Osteopath Assoc. 2005 Jun;105(6):283-91. PMID 16118355
  34. ^ Frymann VM, Carney RE, Springall P. Effect of osteopathic medical management on neurologic development in children. J Am Osteopath Assoc, Vol. 92, No. 6. (June 1992), pp. 729-744. PMID 1377192
  35. ^ Greenman PE, McPartland JM. Cranial findings and iatrogenesis from craniosacral manipulation in patients with traumatic brain syndrome. J Am Osteopath Assoc. 1995 Mar;95(3):182-8; 191-2. PMID 7751168
  36. ^ Osteopathy Education Osteopathic Centre for Children
  37. ^ Madeline LA, Elster AD. (1995) Suture closure in the human chondrocranium: CT assessment. Radiology 196(3):747-756. PMID 7644639
  38. ^ Ferre JC, Chevalier C, Lumineau JP, Barbin JY (1990) Cranial osteopathy, delusion or reality? Actualites Odonto-Stomatologiques 44: 481-494. PMID 2173359

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