Decentralization is the process of dispersing decision-making closer to the point
of service or action. It occurs in a great many contexts in engineering, management science, political science, political economy, sociology and economics—each of which could be said to study mass decision-making by groups, too large to consult with each
other very directly.
Decentralization is also used to mean the planned dispersal of population and employment, as for example in UK government
policy following World War II. In particular the New Towns Act 1946 aimed both to
reduce congestion in large cities such as London, and to make the economy less
vulnerable to future air attack following the experience of The Blitz.
Law and science can also be said to be highly decentralized
human practices. There are serious studies of how causality and correlations of phenomenon can respectively be determined and agreed
across an entire nation, or indeed across the entire human species spread across the planet. While such institutions as the
International Criminal Court or Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change seem highly centralized, in fact they rely so heavily on the underlying legal and scientific processes that they can be said to
simply reflect, as opposed to impose, global opinion.
A central theme in all kinds of decentralization is the difference between a hierarchy,
based on:
- authority: two players in an unequal-power relationship; and
- an interface: a lateral relationship between two players of roughly equal power.
The more decentralized a system is, the more it relies on lateral relationships, and the less it can rely on command or force.
In most branches of engineering and economics, decentralization is narrowly defined as the study of markets and interfaces between parts of a system. This is most highly developed as general systems theory and neoclassical political economy.
Organizational Theory
Decentralization is the policy of delegating decision-making authority throughout an organization, relatively away from a
central authority. Some features of a decentralized organization are fewer tiers to the organizational structure, wider span of
control, and a bottom-to-top flow of decision-effecting ideas.
The organizational structure of the United States Military is an example of a centralized organization. In that organization,
many organization-effecting decisions are made by executive level officials or preset policies. These decisions or policies are
then enforced by several tiers of the organization upon gradually broader spans of control until it reaches the bottom tier of
soldiers or workers. However, theories for highly decentralized military organizations do exist, see for example Ubiquitous command and control and Network Centric
Warfare.
In a more decentralized organization, the top executives delegate much of their decision-making authority to lower tiers of
the organizational structure. As a correlation, the organization is likely to run on less rigid policies and wider spans of
control among each officer of the organization. The wider spans of control also reduces the number of tiers within the
organization, giving its structure a flat appearance. One advantage of this structure, if the correct controls are in place, will
be the bottom-to-top flow of information, allowing all decisions among any official of the organization to be well informed about
lower tier operations. For example, an experienced technician at the lowest tier of an organization might know how to increase
the efficiency of the production, the bottom-to-top flow of information can allow for this knowledge to pass up to the executive
officers.
Political theory
Karl Marx, in Das Kapital, observed that the
historical progress of economies from feudalism to
capitalism was a classic example of decentralization. It relied correspondingly less on the
authority of a "nobility", and more on flexible systems of control of capital—the markets themselves, which were relatively merciless in driving down the price of
labour as one of many factors of
production, or punishing poor investment strategy—English nobility could be impoverished by a single bad investment decision, which could not have happened under
any feudal system.
Many, if not most, political theorists believe there are limits to
decentralization as a strategy. They assert that any relaxation of direct control or authority
introduces the possibility of dissent or division at critical moments, especially if what is
being decentralized is decision-making among human beings. Friedrich Engels famously
responded to Bakunin, refuting the argument of total decentralization, or
anarchism, by scoffing "how these people propose to run a factory, operate a railway or steer
a ship without having in the last resort one deciding will, without single management, they of course do not tell us".
However, some anarchists have, in turn, responded to his argument, by explaining that they
do support a (very limited) amount of centralization, in the form of freely elected and recallable delegates. More to the
point from the majority of anarchist perspectives are the real-world successes of anarchist communities, which for the majority only ended when they were defeated by the
overwhelming military might of the State or neighboring States.
All in all, we do not know what a truly decentralized society would look like over a long period of time since it has never been
permitted to exist, however the Zapatistas of Mexico are proving to be quite resilient.
In "On Authority", Engels also wrote of democratic workplaces that "particular
questions arise in each room and at every moment concerning the mode of production,
distribution of material, etc., which must be settled by decision of a delegate
placed at the head of each branch of labour or, if possible, by a majority vote."
Modern trade unions and management scientists
tend to side strongly with Engels in this debate, and generally agree that
decentralization is very closely related to standardisation and subordination, e.g. the standard commodity contracts
traded on the commodity markets, in which disputes are resolved all according to a
jurisdiction and common regulatory system, within the frame of a larger democratic electoral system which can restore any imbalances of power,
and which generally retains the support of the population for its authority.
Notable exceptions among trade unions are the Wobblies, and the
strong anarcho-syndicalist movement of Spain.
However, a strategy of decentralization is not always so obviously political, even if it relies implicitly on authority delegated
via a political system. For example, engineering standards are a means by which decentralization of supply inspection and testing can be achieved—a manufacturer adhering to
the standard can participate in decentralised systems of bidding, e.g. in a parts market. A
building standard, for instance, permits the building
trades to train labour and building supply corporations to provide parts, which enables rapid construction of buildings at remote
sites. Decentralization of training and inspection, through the standards themselves, and related schedules of standardized testing and random spot inspection, achieves a very high statistical reliability of service, i.e. automobiles which
rarely stall, cars which rarely leak, and the like.
In most cases, an effective decentralization strategy and correspondingly robust systems of professional education, vocational education, and
trade certification are critical to creating a modern industrial base. Such
robust systems, and commodity markets to accompany them, are a necessary but not
sufficient feature of any developed nation. A major goal of the industrial
strategy of any developing nation is to safely
decentralise decision-making so that central controls are unnecessary to achieving standards and safety. It seems that a very high degree of social capital is required to
achieve trust in such standards and systems, and that ethical codes play some significant
roles in building up trust in the professions and in the trades.
The consumer product markets, industrial product markets, and service markets
that emerge in a mature industrial economy, however, still ultimately rely, like the simpler commodity markets, on complex systems of standardization,
regulation, jurisdiction, transport, materials and
energy supply. The specification and comparison of these is a major
focus of the study of political economy. Political or other decision-making units
typically must be large and leveraged enough for economy of scale, but also small
enough that centralised authority does not become unaccountable to those performing trades or transactions at its perimeter.
Large states, as Benjamin Franklin observed, were prone to becoming tyrannies, while small states, correspondingly, tended to become corrupt.
Finding the appropriate size of political states or other decision-making units, determining their optimal relationship to
social capital and to infrastructural
capital, is a major focus of political science. In management science there are studies of the ideal size of corporations, and some in anthropology and sociology study the ideal size of villages. Dennis Fox,
a retired professor of legal studies and psychology, proposed an ideal village size of approximately 150 people in his 1985 paper
about the relationship of anarchism to the tragedy of the commons.
All these fields recognize some factors that encourage centralised authority and other factors that encourage decentralised
"democracy"—balances between which are the major focus of group dynamics. However,
decentralization is not only a feature of human society. It is also a feature of ecology.
Another objection or limit to political decentralization, similar in structure to that of Engels, is that terrestrial ecoregions impose a certain fiat by their natural water-circulation,
soil, and plant and animal biodiversity which constitutes a form of (what the
United Nations calls) "natural capital". Since
these natural living systems can be neither changed nor replaced by man, some argue that an ecoregional democracy which follows their borders strictly is the only form of decentralization of larger
political units that will not lead to endless conflict, e.g. gerrymandering, in struggle
between social groups.
Other similar terms include devolution, deconcentration and delegation.
Decentralization in History
Decentralization and centralization are themes that have played major roles in the history of many societies. An excellent
example is the gradual political and organizational changes that have occurred in European history. During the rise and fall of
the Roman Empire, Europe went through major centralization
and decentralization. Although the leaders of the Roman Empire created a European infrastructure, the fall of the Empire left Europe without a strong political system or military
protection. Viking and other barbarian attacks further led
rich Romans to build up their latifundia, or large estates, in a way that would protect their
families and create a self-sufficient living place. This development led to the growth of the manorial system in Europe. This system was greatly decentralized, as the lords of the manor had power to
defend and control the small agricultural environment that was their manor. The manors of the early Middle Ages slowly came together as lords took oaths of fielty to other lords in order to have even stronger
defense against other manors and barbarian groups. This feudal system was also greatly
decentralized, and the kings of weak "countries" did not hold much significant power over the nobility. Although some view the
Roman Catholic Church of the Middle Ages as a centralizing factor, it played a
strong role in weakening the power of the secular kings, which gave the
nobility more power. As the Middle Ages wore on, corruption in the church and new political ideas began to slowly strengthen the
secular powers and bring together the extremely decentralized society. This centralization continued through the Renaissance and has been changed and reformed until the present centralized system which is thought to have
a balance between central government and decentral balance of power.
Links
Decentralization in the Philippines [1], The determinants of Fiscal Decentralization [2]
See also
This entry is from Wikipedia, the leading user-contributed encyclopedia. It may not have been reviewed by professional editors (see full disclaimer)
