demonology

The ancient universal belief in demons is reflected in the Bible. In two passages (Deut 32:17; Ps 106:37) the Israelites are charged with having offered sacrifices to demons – a practice expressly condemned and forbidden. This proscribed worship is imputed to Canaanite influences. The demons are depicted as haunting ruined cities and deserts (cf Lev 16:10; Is 13:21).

Several demons are mentioned by name in the OT: Seirim, translated as "demons" or "wild goats", were probably hairy, goat-like demons (Deut 32:17; Ps 106:37; Is 13:21). Keteb, translated as "destruction" or "sudden death" (Deut 32:24; cf Is 28:2; Hos 13:14), has been identified as the bringer of a deadly plague. In the passage in Hosea, Keteb appears as a messenger of Sheol, the personified abode of the dead. Reshef was a god of plague in the ancient Near East. He has also been identified with the Akkadian deity Nergal who is compared to fire in Ugaritic literature. Translators have rendered Reshef both as "fever" and as "fiery lightning" or "sparks that fly upward" (Ps 78:48; Hab 3:5; Job 5:7). Azazel was a demon who lived in the wilderness, translated "scapegoat" in many versions (See AZAZEL) (Lev 16:8, 10, 26). Lilith, called "night creature" in Isaiah 34:14, was in ancient Mesopotamian and Jewish sources a female demon who tempts men sexually and strangles newborn babies. Dever, often translated "pestilence", joins Reshef in appearing before God as he is about to execute judgment on earth (Hab 3:5).

The OT antipathy to magic as practiced by the surrounding peoples meant that while demonology remained a folk-belief, it was excluded from the main line of religious thought.

An echo of the equation between demons and pagan deities found in the OT (Deut 32:17) is to be seen in the NT in such passages as Acts 17:18; I Corinthians 10:20 and Revelation 9:20. Demons are regarded in the NT as originators of evil, both physical and psychic. The mental disorders and physical ailments brought upon men by the entrance of demons (or "unclean spirits") into the human body include the loss of the power of speech (Matt 12:22), insanity (Luke 8:27-33), sickness (Matt 8:14-15), paralysis and lameness (Acts 8:7). The demons and "unclean spirits" are termed the ministers of Satan or Belial; the latter is occasionally called Beelzebub (Matt 10:25; 12:24, 27; Mark 3:22; Luke 11:15, 18-19). In these passages, the Pharisees charge Jesus with casting out demons by invoking the name of Satan or Beelzebub.

On a number of occasions, Jesus is reported to have expelled demons from people so afflicted and restored them to sanity or the normal use of their physical faculties (Matt 12:22; Mark 3:22; Luke 11:14). Jesus gives his twelve disciples the power over unclean spirits; that is, the power to cast them out (Matt 10:1; Acts 5:15).

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The study of demons or evil spirits; also a branch of magic that deals with such beings. In religious science it has come to indicate knowledge regarding supernatural beings that are not deities. The Greek term daimon originally indicated "genius" or "spirit," and Socrates claimed to have had intercourse with his daimon. However, with the advent of Christianity it came to mean a malevolent spirit entity. Demonology was especially developed during the Middle Ages.

Ancient demonology is discussed in the entries Egypt, Semites, Genius, and Devil Worship, and the demonology in pre-industrial societies is examined in the entries on the various countries and peoples of its origin.

According to Michael Psellus (1018-ca. 1079), author of De Operatione Daemonum Dialogus, demons are divided into six main bodies: the demons of fire; of the air; of the earth; those of the waters and rivers, who cause tempests and floods; the subterranean who prepare earthquakes and excite volcanic eruptions, and the shadowy ones who are somewhat like ghosts. (St. Augustine (354-430 C.E.) considered all demons under the last category.) Psellus's classification is not unlike the system of the Middle Ages, which divided all spirits into those belonging to the four elements: fire, air, earth, and water (salamanders, sylphs, gnomes, and undines, respectively).

Early Concepts of Demonology

The medieval idea of demons, of course, evolved from ancient Christian and Gnostic belief, especially from the accounts of demons in the Bible. Among the Jews, the gods of the surrounding nations were called demons, and those nations were condemned for making sacrifices to demons instead of to the one God, Yahweh (Deut. 32:17; Ps. 106:37). The Christian New Testament speaks of demons as inferior spirits who operate as subjects of the devil. Such demons can take possession of a human being causing various illnesses and physical ailments. Demons were named as causative factors in disease in a prescientific age.

Demons have an expansive role in the biblical record. They can affect the behavior of swine (Matt. 8:30-32) and speak with a knowledge beyond that of an ordinary person (Mark 1:23-24). Biblical authors did understand demons as objectively present in the world and pictured the apostles as trying to drive them away. Considering demons as having an objective existence placed many questions about the nature of their origin, existence, operation, and habitation on the theological agenda. By the third century, the angel Lucifer, who fell from heaven (Isa. 14:12), was identified with Satan, and the fallen angels with demons.

The Gnostics (who competed for members with the early Christians), imitating Plato's classification of the orders of spirits, attempted a similar arrangement with respect to a hierarchy of angels. The first and highest order was named seraphim; the second, cherubim; the third was the order of thrones; the fourth, dominions; the fifth, virtues; the sixth, powers; the seventh, principalities; the eighth, archangels; and the ninth, and lowest, angels.

This classification was censured by the Christian church, yet almost outlived the pneumatologists of the Middle Ages. These scholars—studying the account in which the angel Lucifer rebelled against heaven (Isa. 14:12), and that in which Michael, the archangel, warred against him (Rev. 12:7)—long asked the momentous question, "What orders of angels fell on this occasion?"

At length it became the prevailing opinion that Lucifer was of the order of seraphim. It was also asserted, after laborious research, that Agares, Belial, and Barbatos, each of whom deposed angels of great rank, had been of the order of virtues; that Bileth, Focalor, and Phoenix had been of the order of thrones; that Goap had been of the order of powers; that Purson had been of both the order of virtues and the order of thrones; and that Murmur had belonged to both the order of thrones and the order of angels. The pedigree of many other noble devils was likewise determined.

As the centuries progressed, theologians began to inquire, "How many fallen angels were engaged in the contest?" This was a question of vital importance, and it gave rise to the most strenuous research and to a variety of discordant opinions.

Others asked, "Where was the battle fought—in the inferior heaven, in the highest region of the air, in the firmament, or in Paradise?" and "How long did it last?" These were difficult questions, but the notion that ultimately prevailed was that the engagement was concluded in exactly three seconds, and that while Lucifer, with a number of his followers, fell into hell, the rest were left in the air to tempt man.

A newer question rose out of these investigations: whether a greater number of angels fell with Lucifer or remained in heaven with Michael. Noted scribes were inclined to think that the rebel chief had been beaten by a superior force, and that consequently devils of darkness were fewer in number than angels of light.

These discussions, which for centuries interested the whole of Christendom, exercised the talents of some of the most erudite persons in Europe. The last objective of demonologists was to assess Lucifer's routed forces and reorganize them into a decided form of subordination or government. Hence, extensive districts were given to certain chiefs who fought under the general Lucifer.

There was Zimimar, "the lordly monarch of the north," as Shakespeare calls him, who had his distinct province of devils; Gorson, the king of the South; Amaymon, the king of the East; and Goap, the prince of the West. These sovereigns had many noble spirits subordinate to them whose various ranks were settled with all the preciseness of heraldic distinction. There were devil dukes, devil marquises, devil counts, devil earls, devil knights, devil presidents, and devil prelates.

As a picture of the infernal kingdom was constructed, it was determined that the armed host under Lucifer had been composed of nearly twenty-four hundred legions, of which each demon of rank commanded a certain number. Beleth for instance, who has been described as "a great king and terrible, riding on a pale horse, before whom go trumpets and all melodious music," commanded 85 legions; Agares, the first duke under the power of the East, commanded 31 legions; Leraie, a great marquis, 30 legions; Morax, a great earl and a president, 36 legions; Furcas, a knight, 20 legions. The forces of the other devil chieftains were enumerated after the same manner.

The Appearance of Demons

The strange and hideous forms connected with the popular image of demons were derived from the descriptive writings of the early demonologists, who maintained that demons possessed a decidedly corporeal form and were mortal, or that, like Milton's spirits, they could assume any sex and take any shape they chose. In the Middle Ages, when conjuration was regularly practiced in Europe, devils of rank were supposed to appear under characteristic forms by which they were as well recognized as the head of any ancient family would be by his crest and armorial bearings.

Along with their names and characters were registered the shapes they were said to adopt. A devil would appear like an angel seated in a fiery chariot or riding on an infernal dragon and carrying a viper in his right hand; or he would assume a lion's head, a goose's feet, and a hare's tail; or put on a raven's head and come mounted on a strong wolf.

Among other forms taken by demons were those of a fierce warrior, or of an old man with a hawk in his hand riding upon a crocodile. A human figure would arise having the wings of a griffin or sporting three heads, two of them like those of a toad and one like a cat's; or displaying huge teeth and horns and armed with a sword; or exhibiting a dog's teeth and a large raven's head; or mounted upon a pale horse and exhibiting a serpent's tail; or gloriously crowned and riding upon a dromedary; or presenting the face of a lion; or bestriding a bear while grasping a viper.

Other forms were those of a goodly knight, or of one who bore lance, ensigns, and even a scepter, or of a soldier, either riding on a black horse and surrounded by a flame of fire, or wearing a duke's crown and mounted on a crocodile.

Hundreds of such varied shapes were assumed by devils of rank. In his Sketches of the Philosophy of Apparitions (1824), Dr. S. Hibbert comments: "It would therefore betray too much of the aristocratical spirit to omit noticing the forms which the lower orders of such beings displayed. In an ancient Latin poem, describing the lamentable vision of a devoted hermit, and supposed to have been written by St. Bernard in the year 1238, those spirits, who had no more important business upon earth than to carry away condemned souls, were described as blacker than pitch; as having teeth like lions, nails on their fingers like those of a wild-boar, on their fore-head horns, through the extremities of which poison was emitted, having wide ears flowing with corruption, and discharging serpents from their nostrils. The devout writer of these verses has even accompanied them from drawings, in which the addition of the cloven feet is not omitted. But this appendage, as Sir Thomas Brown has proved, is a mistake, which has arisen from the devil frequently appearing to the Jews in the shape of a rough and hairy goat, this animal being the emblem of sin-offering."

The form of the demons described by St. Bernard (1090-1153) differs little from that which was no less carefully portrayed by English writer Reginald Scot 450 years later, and, perhaps, by the demonologists of modern times. "In our childhood," says Scot, "our mother's maids have so terrified us with an ouglie divell having horns on his head, fier in his mouth, and a tail on his breech, eies like a bason, fangs like a dog, clawes like a beare, … and a voice like a roaring lion."

The Powers of Demons

Although the leading tenets of the occult science of demon-ology may be traced to the Jews and early Christians, they matured through communication with the Moors of Spain, who were the chief philosophers of the early Middle Ages. There was much intercultural exchange between the moors and the natives of France and Italy. Toledo, Seville, and Salamanca became the great schools of magic. At Salamanca discourses on the black art were, in keeping with the solemnity of the subject, delivered within the walls of a vast and gloomy cavern.

The instructors taught that all knowledge and power might be obtained from the fallen angels. They were skilled in the abstract sciences, in the knowledge of precious stones, in alchemy, in the various languages of mankind and of the lower animals, in belles lettres, in moral philosophy, pneumatology, divinity, magic, history, and prophecy, it was told. The demons could control the winds, the waters, and the influence of the stars; they could raise earthquakes; induce diseases or cure them; accomplish vast mechanical tasks; and release souls from purgatory. It was said that they could influence the passions of the mind, procure the reconciliation of friends or foes, engender mutual discord, induce mania and melancholy, or direct the force and objects of sexual affection.

Hierarchy of Demons

According to Johan Weyer, the prominent sixteenth-century Protestant demonologist, demons were divided into a great many classes, into regular kingdoms and principalities, and into mobility and commoners. According to Weyer, Satan was by no means the great sovereign of this monarchy; this honor was held by Beelzebub. Satan was alluded to by Weyer as a dethroned monarch and chief of the opposition; Moloch was called chief of the army; Pluto, prince of fire; and Leonard, grand master of the sphere. The masters of these infernal courts were Adramelech, grand chancellor; Astaroth, grand treasurer; Nergal, chief of the secret police; Baal, chief of the satanic army.

Weyer maintained that each state in Europe also had its infernal ambassadors. Belphegor is assigned to France, Mammon to England, Belial to Turkey, Rimmon to Russia, Thamuz to Spain, Hutjin to Italy, and Martinet to Switzerland.

According to Weyer's calculations the infernal regions contained an army of 7,405,926 devils and demons, organized into 1,111 divisions of 6,666 each.

One of the strangest authorities on demonology was surely Alexis Vincent Charles Berbiguier, known as "the Scourge of the Demons," author of the three-volume encyclopedic work Les Farfadets, ou tous les démons ne sont pas de l'autre monde (1821). In this great study, he describes the infernal court: "This court has representatives on earth. These mandatories are innumerable. I give nomenclature and degree of power of each: Moreau, magician and sorcerer of Paris, represents Beelzebub; Pinel, a doctor of Saltpétrière, represents Satan; Bouge, represents Pluto; Nicholas, a doctor of Avigum, represents Moloch." But Berbiguier was not just a theorist, since he claimed to have caught thousands of demons, impaling them on pins like a butterfly hunter and sealing them in bottles.

Modern Demonology

Belief in demons possibly reached its lowest ebb in the nineteenth century, though occultists such as William Barrett proposed their own demonic hierarchies. By the beginning of the twentieth century, demonology was unfashionable, even in occult circles, but during the occult boom of the 1960s and 1970s, the theme of demonic possession was revived in conservative Christian circles and given widespread coverage in books and movies like The Exorcist, by William P. Blatty. The idea of demons became a divisive force in the church, with some churchmen reviving rituals of exorcism and others remaining adamant in their unwillingness to endorse ancient concepts of demonology. At any rate, the sensationalist aspect of possession by demons is in keeping with the apocalyptic character of modern life, and demons have once again become part of theological discourse.

Sources:

Bodin, Jean. De la démonomania des sorciers. Paris, 1580.

Conway, Moncure D. Demonology and Devil-Lore. 2 vols. London: Chatto & Windus, 1879.

Ebon, Martin, ed. Exorcism: Fact Not Fiction. New York: New American Library, 1974.

Irvine, Doreen. From Witchcraft to Christ. London: Concordia Press, 1973.

Nauman, St. Elmo, Jr. Exorcism Through the Ages. New York: Philosophical Library, 1974.

Neil-Smith, Christopher. The Exorcist and the Possessed. Corn-wall, England: James Pike, 1974.

Remy, Nicolas. Demonolatry. 1595. Reprint, New Hyde Park, N.Y.: University Books, 1974.

Robbins, Rossell Hope. The Encyclopedia of Witchcraft and Demonology. New York: Crown Publishers, 1959.

Scott, Sir Walter. Letters on Demonology and Witchcraft. London, 1830. Reprint, New York: Citadel Press, 1970.

Shepard, Leslie. How to Protect Yourself Against Black Magic and Witchcraft. New York: Citadel Press, 1978.

Strachan, Francoise. Casting Out the Devils. London: Aquarian Press, 1972.

Wall, J. Charles. Devils. London, 1904. Reprint, Detroit: Singing Tree Press, 1968.

Weyer, Johan. Witches, Devils and Doctors in the Renaissance: Johan Weyer, De Praestigiis. Edited by George Mora. Binghamton, N.Y.: Medieval & Renaissance Texts & Studies, 1991.

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Dansk (Danish)
n. - viden om dæmoner

Nederlands (Dutch)
demonenleer

Français (French)
n. - démonologie

Deutsch (German)
n. - Dämonenlehre/ -glaube

Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - (θρησκ.) δαιμονολογία

Italiano (Italian)
demonologia

Português (Portuguese)
n. - demonologia (f)

Русский (Russian)
демонология

Español (Spanish)
n. - demonología

Svenska (Swedish)
n. - demonologi

中文（简体）(Chinese (Simplified))
鬼神学, 魔鬼研究

中文（繁體）(Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 鬼神學, 魔鬼研究

한국어 (Korean)
n. - 귀신학

日本語 (Japanese)
n. - 悪霊学, 鬼神論, 妖怪学, 悪魔信仰, 仇敵目録, 悪魔研究

العربيه (Arabic)
‏(الاسم) دراسه الأرواح الشريرة أو الشياطين, الإيمان بالشياطين أو الأرواح الشريرة‏

עברית (Hebrew)
n. - ‮חקר השדים והרוחות‬

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