Demosthenes (384–322 BCE, Greek:
Δημοσθένης, Dēmosthénēs) was a prominent Greek statesman and
orator of ancient Athens. His orations constitute a significant expression of ancient Athenian intellectual prowess and provide a thorough
insight into the politics and culture of ancient Greece
during the 4th century BC. Demosthenes learned rhetoric by studying the speeches of previous great orators. He delivered his first judicial speeches at the age of
twenty, in which he argued effectively to gain from his guardians what was left of his inheritance. For a time, Demosthenes made
his living as a professional speech-writer (logographer) and a lawyer, writing speeches for use in private legal suits.
Demosthenes grew interested in politics during his time as a logographer, and in 354 BCE he gave his first public political
speeches. He went on to devote his most productive years to opposing Macedon's expansion. He
idealized his city and strove throughout his life to restore Athens' supremacy and motivate his compatriots against
Philip II of Macedon. He sought to preserve his city's freedom and to establish an
alliance against Macedon, in an unsuccessful attempt to impede Philip's plans to expand his influence southwards by conquering
all the Greek states. After Philip's death, Demosthenes played a leading part in his city's uprising against the new King of
Macedon, Alexander the Great. However, his efforts failed and the revolt was met
with a harsh Macedonian reaction. To prevent a similar revolt against his own rule, Alexander's successor, Antipater, sent his men to track Demosthenes down. Demosthenes took his own life, in order to avoid being
arrested by Archias, Antipater's confidant.
The Alexandrian Canon compiled by Aristophanes of Byzantium and
Aristarchus of Samothrace recognized Demosthenes as one of the ten greatest
Attic orators and logographers. According to Longinus, Demosthenes "perfected to the utmost the tone of lofty speech, living passions,
copiousness, readiness, speed".[1] Cicero acclaimed him as "the perfect orator" who lacked nothing, and Quintilian extolled him as "lex orandi" ("the standard of oratory") and that "inter omnes unus excellat" ("he
stands alone among all the orators").[2][3]
Early years (384–355 BCE)
Family, education and personal life
Family and education
Bust of Demosthenes (
Musei Capitolini, Rome), Roman copy of a Greek original sculpted
by
Polyeuktos
Demosthenes was born in 384 BCE, during the last year of the 98th Olympiad or the first year
of the 99th Olympiad.[4] His father—also named
Demosthenes—who belonged to the local tribe, Pandionis, and lived in the deme of Paeania[5] in the Athenian countryside, was a wealthy sword-maker.[6] Aeschines, Demosthenes'
greatest political rival, maintained that his mother Kleoboule was a Scythian by blood[7]—an allegation disputed by some modern
scholars.[a] Demosthenes was
orphaned at the age of seven. Although his father provided well for him, his legal guardians, Aphobus, Demophon and Therippides,
mishandled his inheritance.[8]
As soon as Demosthenes came of age in 366 BCE, he demanded they render an account of their management. According to
Demosthenes, the account revealed the misappropriation of his property. Although his father left an estate of nearly fourteen
talents,[9]
(very roughly 3,000 pounds in gold (i.e., before 1914) or 400,000 current United States
dollars)[10] Demosthenes asserted his
guardians had left nothing "except the house, and fourteen slaves and thirty silver minae" (30 minae = ½ talent).[11] At the age of 20, Demosthenes sued his trustees in
order to recover his patrimony and delivered five orations — three Against Aphobus during 363 BC and 362 BC and two
Against Ontenor during 362 and 361 BCE. The courts fixed Demosthenes' damages at ten talents.[12] When all the trials came to an end,[b] he only succeeded in retrieving a portion of his
inheritance.[10]
Between his coming of age in 366 BCE and the trials that took place in 364 BCE, Demosthenes and his guardians negotiated
acrimoniously but were unable to reach an agreement, for neither side was willing to make concessions.[10] At the same time, Demosthenes prepared himself for the trials and
improved his oratory skill. As an adolescent, his curiosity had been noticed by the orator Callistratus, who was then at the height of his reputation, having just won a case of
considerable importance.[13] According to
Friedrich Nietzsche, a German philologist and
philosopher, and Constantine
Paparregopoulus, a major Greek historian, Demosthenes was a student of Isocrates;[14][15] according to Cicero, Quintillian and the Roman biographer Hermippus, he was a
student of Plato.[13]
Lucian, a Roman-Syrian rhetorician and satirist, lists the
philosophers Aristotle, Theophrastus and
Xenocrates among his teachers.[16] These claims are nowadays disputed.[c] According to Plutarch, Demosthenes employed Isaeus as
his master in Rhetoric, even though Isocrates was then teaching this subject, either because he could not pay Isocrates the
prescribed fee or because Demosthenes believed Isaeus' style better suited a vigorous and astute orator such as himself .[13] Curtius, a German
archaeologist and historian, likened the relation between Isaeus and Demosthenes to "an
intellectual armed alliance".[17]
It has also been said that Demosthenes paid Isaeus 10,000 drachmae (somewhat over 1.5
talents) on the condition that Isaeus should withdraw from a school of Rhetoric which he had opened, and should devote himself
wholly to Demosthenes, his new pupil.[17] Another
version credits Isaeus with having taught Demosthenes without charge.[18] According to Sir Richard C. Jebb, a British
classical scholar, "the intercourse between Isaeus and
Demosthenes as teacher and learner can scarcely have been either very intimate or of very long duration".[17] Konstantinos Tsatsos, a
Greek professor and academician, believes that Isaeus helped Demosthenes edit his initial
judicial orations against his guardians.[19] Demosthenes is also said to have admired the historian Thucydides. In the Illiterate
Book-Fancier, Lucian mentions eight beautiful copies of Thucydides made by Demosthenes, all in Demosthenes' own
handwriting.[20] These references hint at his
respect for a historian he must have assiduously studied.[21]
According to Pseudo-Plutarch, Demosthenes was married once. The only information
about his wife, whose name is unknown, is that she was the daughter of Heliodorus, a prominent citizen.[22] Demosthenes also had a daughter, "the first
and only one who ever called him father", according to Aeschines' in a trenchant remark.[23] His daughter died young and unmarried a few days before Philip's
death.[23]
Accusations concerning personal life
In his speeches, Aeschines, often uses the pederastic relations of
Demosthenes to attack him. The essence of these attacks was not that Demosthenes had relations with boys, but that he had been an
inadequate pederast, one whose attentions did not benefit the boys, as would have been expected,
but harmed them instead. In the case of Aristion, a youth from Plataea who lived for a long time
in Demosthenes' house, Aeschines mocked him for lack of sexual restraint and possibly effeminate behavior: "Allegations about
what [Aristion] was undergoing there, or doing what, vary, and it would be most unseemly for me to talk about it."[24] Another relationship which Aeschines brings up is that with
Cnosion. His allegation, in this case, was also of a sexual nature. This time, however, he blamed Demosthenes for involving his
wife by putting her in bed with the youth so as to get children by him.[25] Athenaeus, however, presents matters in a different light,
claiming that his wife bedded the boy in a fit of jealousy.[26]
Aeschines often asserted that Demosthenes made money out of young rich men. He claimed that he deluded Aristarchus, the son of
Moschus, with the pretence that he could make him a great orator.[27] Apparently, while still under Demosthenes' tutelage, Aristarchus killed and mutilated a certain
Nicodemus of Aphidna, gouging out his eyes and tongue. Aeschines accused Demosthenes of complicity in the murder, pointing out
that Nicodemus had once pressed a lawsuit accusing Demosthenes of desertion. He also accused Demosthenes of having been such a
bad erastes to Aristarchus so as not even to deserve the name. His crime, according to
Aeschines, was to have betrayed his eromenos by pillaging his estate, allegedly pretending to
be in love with the youth so as to get his hands on the boy's inheritance. This he is said to have squandered, having taken three
talents upon Aristarchus' fleeing into exile so as to avoid a trial. Thus, in
payment for the trust that Aristarchus and his family put in him, "You entered a happy home [...] you ruined it."[28] Nevertheless, the story of Demosthenes' relations with
Aristarchus is still regarded as more than doubtful, and no other pupil of Demosthenes is known by name.[27]
Career as logographer
| "If you feel bound to act in the spirit of that dignity, whenever you come into court to give
judgement on public causes, you must bethink yourselves that with his staff and his badge every one of you receives in trust the
ancient pride of Athens." |
| Demosthenes (On the Crown, 210) - The orator's defense of the honor of the courts was in
contrast to the improper actions of which Aeschines accused him. |
To make his living, Demosthenes became a professional litigant and logographer, writing
speeches for use in private legal suits. He was so successful that he soon acquired wealthy and powerful clients. The Athenian
logographer could remain anonymous, allowing him to serve personal interests, even if it prejudiced the client. Aeschines accused
Demosthenes of unethically disclosing his clients' arguments to their opponents.[29] He queried of Demosthenes: "And the born traitor—how shall we
recognize him? Will he not imitate you, Demosthenes, in his treatment of those whom chance throws in his way and who have trusted
him? Will he not take pay for writing speeches for them to deliver in the courts, and then reveal the contents of these speeches
to their opponents?"[30]
As an example, Aeschines accused Demosthenes of writing a speech for Phormion, a wealthy banker, and then communicating it to
Apollodorus, who was bringing a capital charge against Phormion.[30] Plutarch supported this accusation,
stating that Demosthenes "was thought to have acted dishonorably".[31]
Early politics (354 BC–350 BC)
Speech training
Demosthenes Practising Oratory by
Jean-Jules-Antoine Lecomte du
Nouy (1842–1923). Demosthenes used to study in an underground room he constructed himself. He also used to talk with
pebbles in his mouth and recited verses while running. To strengthen his voice, he spoke on the seashore over the roar of the
waves.
Even before he turned 21 years in 363 BCE, Demosthenes had already demonstrated an interest in politics.[10] In 363, 359, and 357 BCE, he assumed the office of
the trierarch, being responsible for the outfitting and maintenance of a trireme.[32] In 348 BCE, he became a
choregos, paying the expenses of a theatrical production.[33]
Although Demosthenes said he never pleaded a single private case,[34] it remains unclear when and if Demosthenes abandoned the profitable but not so prestigious
profession of logography.[d]
According to Plutarch, when Demosthenes first addressed himself to the people, he was derided for his strange and uncouth style,
"which was cumbered with long sentences and tortured with formal arguments to a most harsh and disagreeable excess".[35]
Some citizens however discerned his talent. When he first left the ecclesia
(the Athenian Assembly) disheartened, an old man named Eunomus encouraged him, saying his diction was very much like that of
Pericles.[35]
Another time, after the ecclesia had refused to hear him and he was going home dejected, an actor named Satyrus followed him and
entered into a friendly conversation with him.[36]
As a boy Demosthenes had a speech impediment — an inarticulate and stammering
pronunciation.[37] Aeschines taunted
him and referred to him in his speeches by the nickname "Batalus",[e] apparently invented by Demosthenes' pedagogues or by the little boys with whom he was
playing.[38][39] According to Plutarch, he had a weakness in his voice of "a
perplexed and indistinct utterance and a shortness of breath, which, by breaking and disjointing his sentences much obscured the
sense and meaning of what he spoke."[35] Demosthenes
soon undertook a disciplined program to overcome these shortcomings and improve his locution. He worked on his diction, his voice
and his gestures.[40] His zeal and perseverance
have passed into proverb. It is however unknown whether these vignettes are factual accounts of events in Demosthenes' life or
merely anecdotes used to illustrate his perseverance and determination.[10]
Increased political activity
- See also: On the Navy, For the
Megalopolitans, and On the Liberty of the Rhodians
Between 354 and 350 BCE, Demosthenes continued practicing law privately while he was becoming increasingly interested in
public affairs. He mostly remained a judicial orator, but started participating in the politics of the Athenian democracy. In 355 BC he wrote Against Androtion and, in 354 BC, Against
Leptines — two fierce attacks on individuals who attempted to repeal certain tax exemptions. In Against Timocrates and
Against Aristocrates he advocated eliminating corruption. Demosthenes denounced measures regarded as dishonest or unworthy
of Athenian traditions.[41] All
these speeches offer early glimpses of his general principles on foreign policy, such as the importance of the navy, of alliances
and of national honor.[42]
| "While the vessel is safe, whether it be a large or a small one, then is the time for sailor and
helmsman and everyone in his turn to show his zeal and to take care that it is not capsized by anyone's malice or inadvertence;
but when the sea has overwhelmed it, zeal is useless." |
| Demosthenes (Third Philippic, 69) - The orator warned his countrymen of the disasters Athens
would suffer, if they continued to remain idle and indifferent to the challenges of their times. |
In 354 BC, Demosthenes delivered his first political oration, On the Navy, in which he espoused moderation and proposed
the reform of "symmories"(boards) as a source of funding for the Athenian fleet.[41][43] In 352 BCE, he delivered For the Megalopolitans and, in 351 BCE, On the Liberty of
the Rhodians. In both speeches he opposed Eubulus, the most powerful Athenian
statesman of the period 355 to 342 BCE, who was against any intervention in the internal affairs of the other Greek
cities.[44]
Although none of his early orations was successful, Demosthenes established himself as an important political personality and
broke with Eubulus' faction, a prominent member of which was Aeschines. He laid the foundations for his future political
successes and for becoming the leader of his own party. His arguments revealed his desire to articulate Athens' needs and
interests.[45]
In 351 BCE, Demosthenes felt strong enough to express his view concerning the most important foreign policy issue facing
Athens at that time: the stance his city should take towards Philip II of Macedon. According to Jacqueline de Romilly, a French philologist and member of the Académie française, the threat of Philip would give Demosthenes' stances a focus and a raison
d'être.[42] Henceforth,
Demosthenes' career is virtually the history of Athenian foreign policy.[37]
Confronting Philip
First Philippic and the Olynthiacs (351–349 BCE)
- For more details on this topic, see First Philippic and Olynthiacs
Most of Demosthenes' major orations were directed against the growing power of King Philip II of Macedon. Since 357 BCE, when
Philip seized Amphipolis and Pydna, Athens had been formally
at war with the Macedonians.[46] In 352 BCE, Demosthenes characterized Philip as the very worst enemy of his city; his speech
presaged the fierce attacks that Demosthenes would launch against the Macedonian king over the ensuing years.[47] A year later he criticized those dismissing
Philip as a person of no account and warned that he was as dangerous as the King of Persia.[48]
In 352 BCE, Athenian troops successfully opposed Philip at Thermopylae,[49] but the Macedonian victory over the
Phocians at the Battle of Crocus Field shook
Demosthenes. The theme of the First Philippic (351–350 BCE) was preparedness and the reform of the theoric fund,[f] a mainstay of Eubulus' policy.[42] In his rousing call for resistance, Demosthenes asked his
countrymen to take the necessary action and asserted that "for a free people there can be no greater compulsion than shame for
their position".[50]
| "We need money, for sure, Athenians, and without money nothing can be done that ought to be
done." |
| Demosthenes (First Olynthiac, 20) - The orator took great pains to convince his countrymen
that the reform of the theoric fund was necessary to finance the city's military preparations. |
From this moment until 341 BCE, all of Demosthenes' speeches referred to the same issue, the struggle against Philip. In 349
BCE, Philip attacked Olynthus, an ally of Athens. In the three Olynthiacs, Demosthenes
criticized his compatriots for being idle and urged Athens to help Olynthus.[51][52] He also insulted Philip by calling him a "barbarian".[g] Despite Demosthenes' warnings, the Athenians engaged in a
useless war in Euboea and offered no military support to Olynthus.[53]
Case of Meidias (348 BCE)
-
In 348 BCE a peculiar event occurred: Meidias, a wealthy Athenian, publicly slapped
Demosthenes, who was at the time a choregos at the Greater Dionysia, a large religious festival
in honour of the god Dionysus.[33] Meidias was a friend of Eubulus and supporter of the unsuccessful excursion in
Euboea.[53] He also was an old enemy of
Demosthenes; in 361 BC he had broken violently into his house, with his brother Thrasylochus, to take possession of it.[54]
| "Just think. The instant this court rises, each of you will walk home, one quicker, another more
leisurely, not anxious, not glancing behind him, not fearing whether he is going to run up against a friend or an enemy, a big
man or a little one, a strong man or a weak one, or anything of that sort. And why? Because in his heart he knows, and is
confident, and has learned to trust the State, that no one shall seize or insult or strike him." |
| Demosthenes (Against Meidias, 221) - The orator asked the Athenians to defend their legal
system, by making an example of the defendant for the instruction of others.[55] |
Demosthenes decided to prosecute his wealthy opponent and wrote the judicial oration Against Meidias. This speech gives
valuable information about Athenian law at the time and especially about the Greek concept of hybris (aggravated assault), which was regarded as a crime not only against the city but against society as a
whole.[56] He stated that a democratic state perishes if
the rule of law is undermined by wealthy and unscrupulous men, and that the citizens acquire
power and authority in all state affairs due "to the strength of the laws".[54] According to philologist Henri
Weil, Demosthenes dropped the charges for political reasons and never delivered Against Meidias,[57] although Aeschines maintained that Demosthenes was
bribed.[58]
Peace of Philocrates (347–345 BCE)
-
In 348 BCE, Philip conquered Olynthus and razed it to the ground; then conquered the entire Chalcidice and all the states of the Chalcidic federation that Olynthus had once led.[59] After these Macedonian victories,
Athens sued for peace with Macedon. Demosthenes was among those who favored compromise. In 347 BCE, an Athenian delegation,
comprising Demosthenes, Aeschines and Philocrates, was officially sent to Pella to
negotiate a peace treaty. In his first encounter with Philip, Demosthenes is said to have collapsed from fright.[60]
The ecclesia officially accepted the harsh terms Phillip imposed. However, when an Athenian delegation arrived at Pella to put
Phillip under oath, which was required to conclude the treaty, he was campaigning abroad.[61] He expected that he would hold safely any Athenian
possessions which he might seize before the ratification.[62] Being very anxious about the delay, Demosthenes insisted that the embassy should travel to
the place where they would find Philip and swear him in without delay.[62] Despite his suggestions, the Athenian envoys, including himself and Aeschines, remained in
Pella, until Philip successfully concluded his campaign in Thrace.[63]
Finally, peace was sworn at Pherae, but Demosthenes accused the other envoys of
venality.[64] Just after the conclusion of
the Peace of Philocrates, Philip passed Thermopylae, and subdued Phocis; Athens made no move to
support the Phocians.[65][66] Supported by Thebes and Thessaly, Macedon took control of Phocis' votes in the
Amphictyonic League, a Greek religious organization formed to support the greater
temples of Apollo and Demeter.[67] Despite some reluctance on the part of the Athenian leaders, Athens
finally accepted Philip's entry into the Council of the League.[68] Demosthenes was among those who recommended this stance in his oration
On the Peace.
Second and Third Philippics (344–341 BCE)
Satellite image of the Thracian Chersonese and the surrounding area. The Chersonese became the focus of a bitter territorial
dispute between Athens and Macedon. It was eventually ceded to Philip in 338 BCE.
- For more details on this topic, see Second Philippic, On the Chersonese, Third Philippic
In 344 BCE Demosthenes travelled to the Peloponnese, in order to detach as many cities as
possible from Macedon's influence, but his efforts were generally unsuccessful.[69] Most of the Peloponnesians saw Philip as the guarantor of their
freedom and sent a joint embassy to Athens to express their grievances against Demosthenes' activities.[70] In response, Demosthenes delivered the Second
Philippic, a vehement attack against Philip. In 343 BCE Demosthenes delivered On
the False Embassy against Aeschines, who was facing a charge of high treason. Nonetheless, Aeschines was acquitted by
the narrow margin of thirty votes by a jury which may have numbered as many as 1,501.[71]
In 343 BCE, Macedonian forces were conducting campaigns in Epirus and, in 342 BCE,
Philip campaigned in Thrace.[72] He also negotiated with the Athenians an amendment to the Peace of Philocrates.[73] When the Macedonian army approached
Chersonese (now known as the Gallipoli
Peninsula), an Athenian general named Diopeithes ravaged the maritime district of
Thrace, thereby inciting Philip's rage. Because of this turbulence, the Athenian Assembly convened. Demosthenes delivered On
the Chersonese and convinced the Athenians not to recall Diopeithes. Also in 342 BCE, he delivered the Third
Philippic, which is considered to be the best of his political orations.[74] Using all the power of his eloquence, he demanded resolute action
against Philip and called for a burst of energy from the Athenian people. He told them that it would be "better to die a thousand
times than pay court to Philip".[75] Demosthenes now
dominated Athenian politics and was able to considerably weaken the pro-Macedonian faction of Aeschines.
Battle of Chaeronea (338 BCE)
-
The battle of Chaeronea (map designed by
Marco Prins and Jona Lendering) took place the autumn of 338 BC and resulted in a significant
victory for Philip, who established Macedon's supremacy over the Greek cities.
In 341 BCE Demosthenes was sent to Byzantium, where he sought to renew its alliance with
Athens. Thanks to Demosthenes' diplomatic manoeuvres Abydos also entered into an
alliance with Athens. These developments worried Philip and increased his anger at Demosthenes. The Athenian Assembly, however,
laid aside Philip's grievances against Demosthenes' conduct and denounced the peace treaty — so doing, in effect, amounted to an
official declaration of war. In 339 BCE Philip made his last and most effective bid to conquer southern Greece, assisted by Aeschines' stance in the Amphictyonic Council.[76] During a meeting of the Council, Philip accused the
Amfissian Locrians of intruding on consecrated ground.[77] The presiding officer of the
Council, a Thessalian named Cottyphus, proposed the convocation of an Amphictyonic Congress to inflict a harsh punishment upon
the Locrians.[78] Aeschines
agreed with this proposition and maintained that the Athenians should participate in the Congress.[78] Demosthenes however reversed
Aeschines' initiatives and Athens finally abstained.[79] After the failure of a first military excursion against the Locrians, the summer session of the
Amphictyonic Council gave command of the league's forces to Philip and asked him to lead a second excursion.[80] Philip decided to act at once;
in the winter of 339–338 BCE, he passed through Thermopylae, entered Amfissa and defeated the Locrians. After this significant
victory, Philip swiftly entered Phocis in 338 BC. He then turned south-east down the Cephissus valley, seized Elateia, and restored the
fortifications of the city.[80]
At the same time, Athens orchestrated the creation of an alliance with Euboea, Megara,
Achaea, Corinth, Acarnania
and other states in the Peloponnese. However the most desirable ally for Athens was Thebes. To secure their allegiance,
Demosthenes was sent, by Athens, to the Boeotian city; Philip also sent a deputation, but Demosthenes succeeded in securing
Thebes' allegiance.[81]
Demosthenes' oration before the Theban people is not extant and, therefore, the arguments he used to convince the Thebans remain
unknown. In any case, the alliance came at a price: Thebes' control of Boeotia was recognized, Thebes was to command solely on
land and jointly at sea, and Athens was to pay two thirds of the campaign's cost.[82]
While the Athenians and the Thebans were preparing themselves for war, Philip made a final attempt to appease his enemies,
proposing in vain a new peace treaty.[83] After a
few trivial encounters between the two sides, which resulted in minor Athenian victories, Philip drew the phalanx of the Athenian and Theban confederates into a plain near Chaeronea, where he defeated them. Demosthenes fought as a mere hoplite.[h] Such
was Philip's hate for Demosthenes that, according to Diodorus Siculus, the King after
his victory sneered at the misfortunes of the Athenian statesman. However, the Athenian orator and statesman Demades is said to have remarked: "O King, when Fortune has cast you in the role of Agamemnon, are you not ashamed to act the part of Thersites (an obscene
soldier of the Greek army during the Trojan War)?" Stung by these words, Philip immediately
altered his demeanour.[84]
Last political initiatives and death
Confronting Alexander and delivering On the Crown
- See also: On the Crown
Alexander Mosaic from
Pompeii, from a 3rd century BC
original Greek painting, now lost. In 336–335 BCE, the King of Macedon crippled any attempt of the Greek cities at resistance and
shattered Demosthenes' hopes for Athenian independence.
After Chaeronea, Philip inflicted a harsh punishment upon Thebes, but made peace with Athens on very lenient terms.
Demosthenes encouraged the fortification of Athens and was chosen by the ecclesia to deliver the Funeral Oration.[85][86] In 337 BC, Philip created the League of
Corinth, a confederation of Greek states under his leadership, and returned to Pella.[87] In 336 BCE, Philip was assassinated at the wedding of his daughter, Cleopatra
of Macedonia, to King Alexander of Epirus. After Philip's death, the army
proclaimed Alexander, then aged twenty, as the new King of Macedon. Greek cities like Athens and Thebes saw in this change of
leadership an opportunity to regain their full independence. Demosthenes celebrated Philip's assassination and played a leading
part in his city's uprising. According to Aeschines, "it was but the seventh day after the death of his daughter, and though the
ceremonies of mourning were not yet completed, he put a garland on his head and white raiment on his body, and there he stood
making thank-offerings, violating all decency."[23] Demosthenes also sent envoys to Attalus, whom
he considered to be an internal opponent of Alexander.[88] Nonetheless, Alexander moved swiftly to Thebes, which submitted shortly after his appearance at its
gates. When the Athenians learned that Alexander had moved quickly to Boeotia, they panicked and begged the new King of Macedon
for mercy. Alexander admonished them but imposed no punishment.
| "You stand revealed in your life and conduct, in your public performances and also in your public
abstinences. A project approved by the people is going forward. Aeschines is speechless. A regrettable incident is reported.
Aeschines is in evidence. He reminds one of an old sprain or fracture: the moment you are out of health it begins to be
active." |
| Demosthenes (On the Crown, 198) - In On the Crown Demosthenes fiercely assaulted and
finally neutralized Aeschines, his formidable political opponent. |
In 335 BCE Alexander felt free to engage the Thracians and the Illyrians. While he was campaigning in the north, the Thebans and the Athenians rebelled once again, believing
i
