Dictionary:
dys·to·ni·a (dĭs-tō'nē-ə)  |
Abnormal tonicity of muscle, characterized by prolonged, repetitive muscle contractions that may cause twisting or jerking movements of the body or a body part.
dystonic dys·ton'ic (-tŏn'ĭk) adj.| 5min Related Video: dystonia |
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Neurological Disorder:
Dystonia |
Definition
Dystonia is a disabling movement disorder characterized by sustained contraction of muscles leading to twisting distorted postures. Dystonia may affect various parts of the body and has multiple causes, making classification and diagnosis challenging. The etiology behind the various forms of dystonia is unknown, although abnormal functioning of the cerebral cortex and basal ganglia and other pathways involved in movement are presumed. Clinical and basic science research on humans and primates, and identification of multiple genes causing dystonia have improved the understanding and treatment of this debilitating disorder.
Description
Dystonia as a term was first coined by Oppenheim in 1911 in reference to a childhood-onset syndrome he termed dystonia musculorum deformans. This entity, known as idiopathic torsion dystonia today, was noted to run in families, and although presumably inherited, was only recently proven to be of genetic cause. There is a wide range of variability in the manifestation of clinical symptoms of dystonia. Due to its various causes, dystonia is seen as a syndrome rather than a disease.
Dystonia can be classified by age of onset, cause, or by distribution of the body parts affected. Dystonia localized to a single body part such as the hand or neck is referred to as focal. Among body parts affected in focal dystonia, the eyelids, mouth, muscles controlling the voice, neck, hand, or arm may be affected. Dystonia localized to two contiguous body parts is referred to as segmental. Dystonia affecting body parts that are not next to each other is referred to as multifocal. Dystonia affecting one segment and another body part is classified as generalized. It may also affect only one half of the body and be called hemidystonia. Dystonia with a known environmental cause is referred to as secondary. The cause of primary or idiopathic dystonias is unknown or genetic.
The course and severity of dystonic symptoms may change over the duration of the illness. Symptoms may initially involve one body part and then spread to other body parts. The likelihood of spread often depends on the age and site of onset of symptoms. Early onset dystonia may start in a limb but tends to become generalized. Adult onset dystonia may start in the neck or face muscles and tends not to spread. Dystonia may first occur only with voluntary movements, but in time, occur at rest as well.
Demographics
Dystonia follows Parkinson's disease and essential tremor as the most frequent movement disorder. Prevalence is estimated as 3.4 per 100,000 for generalized forms and 29.5 per 100,000 for focal dystonia. Early onset dystonia may be more frequent in patients of Jewish ancestry, especially from Eastern Europe or Ashkenazi background.
Causes and symptoms
Causes
The exact cause of dystonia is unknown. Ongoing research on dystonia is directed at examining the abnormal brain activity in different parts of the brain such as the basal ganglia and cerebral cortex. The basal ganglia are a collection of nerve cells that are part of the brain pathways important for regulating aspects of normal movement. Abnormalities in the processing of information in these pathways are thought to underlie the various movement disorders such as Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, tremor, and dystonia. There is evidence for abnormalities in the spinal cord and peripheral nerves as well, suggesting that dystonia may involve abnormalities at multiple levels of the nervous system. Patients with dystonia may have abnormal touch perception and sensation, and theories propose that there may be defects in the preparation of movement as well as the translation of sensation to movement. Dystonia can be classified by cause into primary and secondary forms. Primary or idiopathic dystonia is presumed to be of genetic or unknown cause, whereas secondary dystonias are due to an attributable cause.
Primary dystonia
Primary or idiopathic dystonias have no identifiable etiology and are presumed to be genetic in cause. There are currently at least 13 different genetic dystonia syndromes, although only a few genes have actually been isolated. The only identified gene for primary dystonia is DYT1 on chromosome 9. DYT1 dystonia tends to occur in childhood and starts in a limb only to generalize. The appearance of the dystonia may differ in individuals with the same genetic abnormality, suggesting that there are environmental factors involved as well. Primary genetic dystonias may appear in multiple family members, but most are due to new mutations in genes and referred to as sporadic. Primary dystonias tend to develop gradually over the course of months to years.
Secondary dystonia
Secondary dystonia can be caused by a structural abnormality of the brain such as a stroke or infection, drugs or various toxins or metabolic abnormalities. These tend to occur over the course of days to weeks due to the nature of an inciting insult. Dystonia may occur after birth trauma and may be delayed in onset for up to a decade or later. Some may occur as part of a larger disease process affecting other parts of the body such as Wilson's disease, a defect of metabolism of copper that causes abnormal liver function and movement problems such as dystonia or tremor. Usually an abnormality will be found on brain imaging studies such as MRI or CT scan. Patients taking medications for psychiatric diseases such as schizophrenia or psychosis may develop dystonia as a drug reaction. Dystonia may be feigned as part of a psychiatric disorder and is then known as psychogenic.
Other dystonias
Dystonia may also be associated with other neurologic disorders. These are classified as dystonia-plus syndromes. Dystonia may be associated with Parkinson's disease or myoclonus, another movement disorder which consists of muscle jerking. Dystonia may be part of a larger syndrome of neurodegenerative disorders, a group of diseases which are caused by degeneration of nerve cells in certain portions of the brain. Such disorders include Huntington's disease and Parkinson's disease.
Symptoms
The symptoms of dystonia depend on the body part affected. Dystonia localized to the face may involve repetitive blinking, tongue protrusion, or jaw clenching. Blinking can become so severe that the patient can not see due to inability to open the eyes. Dystonia affecting the neck may lead to sustained flexion, extension, or twisting postures of the neck known as torticollis. Some dystonias are task-specific and only arise during the performance of certain tasks such as writing, typing, or playing instruments. The progression of these symptoms can lead to severe disability and inability to perform daily work. Generalized dystonia, the most severe form, can present as twisting movements of the head, trunk, and arms, completely disabling the affected individual. Dystonia can often be associated with a tremor in the affected body part. All forms of dystonia impair normal movement and daily function to some degree. Dystonia can be worsened by stress and anxiety, whereas it may be relieved with relaxation and sleep. Symptoms may be improved by touching various parts of the body in a phenomenon called a "sensory trick."
Diagnosis
The diagnosis of dystonia is clinical and is usually made by a neurologist who may have expertise with movement disorders. Investigation of dystonia will usually involve a physical examination and medical history taken by the neurologist to look for secondary causes such as drug exposure or stroke or other family members affected, suggesting a genetic cause. An MRI of the brain may be performed to look for a structural abnormality causing the symptoms. Laboratory testing may reveal abnormalities of copper metabolism associated with Wilson's disease. Genetic testing for the DYT1 gene is not performed unless the dystonia is early in onset or there is a family history of similar symptoms.
Treatment team
Treatment for dystonia involves the interaction between a neurologist, psychiatrists, and physical and occupational therapists. Treatment may involve a neurosurgeon for symptoms that do not respond to medical management. Dystonia of childhood onset is treated by a pediatric neurologist cooperating with pediatricians and pediatric therapists.
Treatment
Treatment for dystonia is usually directed towards management of the symptoms and depends on the type of dystonia. Dystonia that is associated or caused by known etiologies such as drugs, Wilson's disease, or dopa-responsive dystonia may be improved by treating the underlying disease with resolution of symptoms. The various treatments available may be grouped into oral medications, botulinum toxin injections, and surgical modalities.
Medications
Various oral medications are available for the symptomatic treatment of dystonia. Among these are various medications that affect different neurochemical systems thought to be important in causing dystonia. Some patients with symptoms of early onset may have dystonia that responds dramatically to levodopa. Anticholinergics, dopamine depleting agents, benzodiazepines, baclofen, or atypical antipsychotics may be tried as well.
Botox
Chemical denervation using botulinum toxin has been used for many movement disorders including dystonia. Botulinum toxin blocks the transmission of nerve impulses to the muscle and paralyzes the overactive muscles involved. Focal forms of dystonia are more amenable to treatment due to the ease of localizing injectable muscles and less extensive involvement. Botox may be used in generalized dystonia to facilitate improvement in select muscles needed for daily function such as the arms and legs.
Surgical treatment
Selective destruction or high frequency stimulation of nerve centers involved in causing dystonia has been useful in treating selected patients with disabling symptoms. Patients with generalized dystonia or hemidystonia may benefit due to the widespread nature of symptoms, limiting the efficacy of medications and botox injections. Surgical lesioning of nerve cells in the globus pallidus or stimulation of cells in the globus pallidus or subthalamic nucleus have been shown to be effective in treating the symptoms of dystonia. The long-term benefit of surgical therapies on symptoms of dystonia has yet to be validated.
Recovery and rehabilitation
Symptoms of dystonia may fluctuate over the course of years. The course of disease in any given individual can not be predicted. Some may improve spontaneously, whereas others may progress and spread to involve other body parts. Physical therapists may aid in the treatment of symptoms of dystonia. Treatment is focused on maintaining or improving the patient's ability to walk. Occupational therapy may be helpful in improving hand use.
Clinical trials
Several clinical trials are currently in effect for treatment of dystonia. The National Institutes of Health (NIH) and National Institutes of Neurological Diseases and Stroke (NINDS) are recruiting patients for trials examining the effect of different medications, botulinum toxin treatment, and surgical treatment for patients with dystonia. Studies are also ongoing to study the effect of electrical stimulation of the brain and nerves with magnetic fields to treat dystonia. Updated information on clinical trials can be found at the National Institutes of Health clinical trials website at www.clinicaltrials.org.
Prognosis
The prognosis for dystonia depends on the distribution and the cause. The initial site of symptoms may predict the prognosis. Patients with symptoms that start in the leg have a higher likelihood (90%) of progression to involve other body parts and become generalized. Patients with symptoms starting in the neck and later in onset have a much lower likelihood of spread. Most focal dystonias respond to medications or botulinum toxin. Refractory and generalized dystonia may require surgical management. Most patients have a normal life expectancy although with continued disabling symptoms.
Special concerns
Educational and social needs
Dystonia in many cases is a chronic illness and due to the physical limitations and often disfiguring symptoms, may lead to feelings of depression or anxiety. These feelings may require treatment by a psychiatrist if severe enough. It is important for patients with dystonia to continue to be involved in community activities and social events.
Resources
BOOKS
Bradley, Walter G., Robert Daroff, Gerald Fenichel, and C. David Marsden. Neurology in Clinical Practice. Newton, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2000.
Rowland, Lewis, ed. Merritt's Textbook of Neurology. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2000.
PERIODICALS
Klein, C., and L. J. Ozelius. "Dystonia: clinical features, genetics, and treatment." Current Opinion in Neurology 15 (2002): 491–497.
Langlois, M., F. Richer, and S. Chouinard. "New Perspectives on Dystonia." Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences 30, Suppl. 1 (2003): S34–S44.
Volkmann, J., and R. Benecke. "Deep Brain Stimulation for Dystonia: Patient Selection and Evaluation." Movement Disorders 17 (2002): S112–S115.
WEBSITES
NINDS Dystonias Information Page. National Institutes of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS). July 1, 2001. (June 7, 2004). http://www.ninds.nih.gov/health_and_medical/disorders/the_dystonias.htm
ORGANIZATIONS
Dystonia Medical Research Foundation. 1 East Wacker Drive, Suite 2430, Chicago, IL 60601-1905. (312) 755-0198; Fax: (312) 803-0138. dystonia@dystonia-foundation.org/ http://www.dystonia-foundation.org.
Worldwide Education & Awareness for Movement Disorders (WE MOVE). 204 West 84th Street, New York, NY 10024. (212) 875-8312 or (800) 437-6682; Fax: (212) 875-8389. wemove@wemove.org. http://www.wemove.org.
Peter T. Lin, MD
| Sports Science and Medicine: dystonia |
1. An impairment of tone in tissue, particularly muscle (see muscle tone).
2. A postural disorder affecting muscles of the head, neck, and trunk due to disease of basal ganglia.
| Veterinary Dictionary: dystonia |
Abnormality of muscular tonus.
| Wikipedia: Dystonia |
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2007) |
| Dystonia | |
| Classification and external resources | |
| ICD-10 | G24.9 |
|---|---|
| ICD-9 | 333 |
| DiseasesDB | 17912 |
| MeSH | D004421 |
Dystonia is a neurological movement disorder in which sustained muscle contractions cause twisting and repetitive movements or abnormal postures.[1] The disorder may be inherited or caused by other factors such as birth-related or other physical trauma, infection, poisoning (e.g. lead poisoning) or reaction to drugs, particularly neuroleptics.[1]
Contents |
The causes of dystonia are not yet known or understood; however, they are categorized as follows on a theoretical basis:
Primary dystonia is suspected to be caused by a pathology of the central nervous system, likely originating in those parts of the brain concerned with motor function, such as the basal ganglia, and the GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) producing Purkinje neurons. The precise cause of primary dystonia is unknown. In many cases it may involve some genetic predisposition towards the disorder combined with environmental conditions.
Secondary dystonia refers to dystonia brought on by some identified cause, usually involving brain damage, or by some unidentified cause such as chemical imbalance. Some cases of (particularly focal) dystonia are brought on after trauma, are induced by certain drugs (tardive dystonia), or may be the result of diseases of the nervous system such as Wilson's disease.
Environmental and task-related factors are suspected to trigger the development of focal dystonias because they appear disproportionately in individuals who perform high precision hand movements such as musicians, engineers, architects and artists.
Symptoms vary according to the kind of dystonia involved. In most cases, dystonia tends to lead to abnormal posturing, particularly on movement. Many sufferers have continuous pain, cramping and relentless muscle spasms due to involuntary muscle movements.
Early symptoms may include loss of precision muscle coordination (sometimes first manifested in declining penmanship, frequent small injuries to the hands, dropped items and a noticeable increase in dropped or chipped dishes), cramping pain with sustained use and trembling. Significant muscle pain and cramping may result from very minor exertions like holding a book and turning pages. It may become difficult to find a comfortable position for arms and legs with even the minor exertions associated with holding arms crossed causing significant pain similar to restless leg syndrome. Affected persons may notice trembling in the diaphragm while breathing, or the need to place hands in pockets, under legs while sitting or under pillows while sleeping to keep them still and to reduce pain. Trembling in the jaw may be felt and heard while lying down, and the constant movement to avoid pain may result in the grinding and wearing down of teeth, or symptoms similar to TMD. The voice may crack frequently or become harsh, triggering frequent throat clearing. Swallowing can become difficult and accompanied by painful cramping.
Electrical sensors (EMG) inserted into affected muscle groups, while painful, can provide a definitive diagnosis by showing pulsating nerve signals being transmitted to the muscles even when they are at rest. The brain appears to signal portions of fibers within the affected muscle groups at a firing speed of about 10 Hz causing them to pulsate, tremble and contort. When called upon to perform an intentional activity, the muscles fatigue very quickly and some portions of the muscle groups do not respond (causing weakness) while other portions over-respond or become rigid (causing micro-tears under load). The symptoms worsen significantly with use, especially in the case of focal dystonia, and a "mirror effect" is often observed in other body parts: use of the right hand may cause pain and cramping in that hand as well as in the other hand and legs that were not being used. Stress, anxiety, lack of sleep, sustained use and cold temperatures can worsen symptoms.
Direct symptoms may be accompanied by secondary effects of the continuous muscle and brain activity, including disturbed sleep patterns, exhaustion, mood swings, mental stress, difficulty concentrating, blurred vision, digestive problems and short temper. People with dystonia may also become depressed and find great difficulty adapting their activities and livelihood to a progressing disability. Side effects from treatment and medications can also present challenges in normal activities.
In some cases, symptoms may progress and then plateau for years, or stop progressing entirely. The progression may be delayed by treatment or adaptive lifestyle changes, while forced continued use may make symptoms progress more rapidly. In others, the symptoms may progress to total disability, making some of the more risky forms of treatment worth considering.
An accurate diagnosis may be difficult because of the way the disorder manifests itself. Sufferers may be diagnosed as having similar and perhaps related disorders including Parkinson's disease, essential tremor, carpal tunnel syndrome, TMD, Tourette's syndrome, or other neuromuscular movement disorders.
These are the most common dystonias and tend to be classified as follows:
The combination of blepharospasmodic contractions and oromandibular dystonia is called cranial dystonia or Meige's syndrome.
There is a group called myoclonus dystonia or myoclonic dystonia, where some cases are hereditary and have been associated with a missense mutation in the dopamin-D2 receptor. Some of these cases have responded remarkably to alcohol.[3][4]
Segmental dystonias affect two adjoining parts of the body:
Treatment has been limited to minimizing the symptoms of the disorder as there is yet no successful treatment for its cause. Reducing the types of movements that trigger or worsen dystonic symptoms provides some relief, as does reducing stress, getting plenty of rest, moderate exercise, and relaxation techniques. Various treatments focus on sedating brain functions or blocking nerve communications with the muscles via drugs, neuro-suppression or denervation. All current treatments have negative side effects and risks.
Physicians may prescribe a series of different medications on a trial basis in an effort to find a combination that is effective for a specific patient. Not all patients will respond well to the same medications. Drugs that have had positive results in some patients include anti-Parkinsons agents Trihexyphenidyl, Trihexyphenidyl-Hydrochloride(PAKISONAL), muscle relaxers (Valium), keppra, and beta-blockers including "off-label" uses for some blood pressure medications.
Drugs such as anticholinergics, which act as inhibitors of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, may provide some relief. Clonazepam, an anti-seizure medicine, is also sometimes prescribed. However, for most sufferers their effects are limited and side effects like mental confusion, sedation, mood swings and short-term memory loss occur.
Botulinum toxin injections into affected muscles have proved quite successful in providing some relief for around 3–6 months, depending on the kind of dystonia. Botox injections have the advantage of ready availability (the same form is used for cosmetic surgery) and the effects are not permanent. There is a risk of temporary paralysis of the muscles being injected or the leaking of the toxin into adjacent muscle groups causing weakness or paralysis in them. The injections have to be repeated as the effects wear off and around 15% of recipients will develop immunity to the toxin. There is a Type A and Type B toxin approved for treatment of dystonia; often those that develop resistance to Type A may be able to use Type B.[5]
Surgery, such as the denervation of selected muscles, may also provide some relief; however, the destruction of nerves in the limbs or brain is not reversible and should only be considered in the most extreme cases. Recently, the procedure of deep brain stimulation (DBS) has proven successful in a number of cases of severe generalised dystonia.[6] DBS as treatment for medication-refractory dystonia, the other hand, may increase the risk of suicide in patients. Unfortunately, reference data of patients without DBS therapy are lacking.[7]
One type of dystonia, dopa-responsive dystonia, can be completely treated with regular doses of L-dopa in a form such as Sinemet (carbidopa/levodopa). Although this doesn't remove the condition, it does alleviate the symptoms most of the time.
In the case of Oculogyric crisis, benadryl may be administered with excellent results. Symptoms subside in a matter of minutes.
A baclofen pump has been used to treat patients of all ages exhibiting muscle spasticity along with dystonia. The pump delivers baclofen via a catheter to the thecal space surrounding the spinal cord. The pump itself is placed in the abdomen. It can be refilled periodically by access through the skin.[8]
Physical therapy can sometimes help with focal dystonia. A structured set of exercises is tailored to help the affected area.
Some focal dystonias have been proven treatable through movement retraining in the Taubman approach, particularly in the case of musicians. However other focal dystonias may not respond and may even be made worse by this treatment.
In the case of a acute dystonic reaction,
Diphenhydramine (Benadryl) 25 - 50 mg IV push is often used in the prehospital and Emergency Department setting to relieve to muscle contractions associated with dystonic reactions. Although an antihistamine, diphenhydramine also possesses some anticholinergic properties. Although diphenhydramine (Benadryl®) is used to treat this reaction, it is not an allergic reaction to the medication. The patient should be informed of this distinction.[9]
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 | Dictionary. The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition Copyright © 2007, 2000 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Updated in 2007. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Read more |
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| Neurological Disorder. Gale Encyclopedia of Neurological Disorders. Copyright © 2005 by The Gale Group, Inc. All rights reserved. Read more |
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| Dental Dictionary. Mosby's Dental Dictionary. Copyright © 2004 by Elsevier, Inc. All rights reserved. Read more |
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| Sports Science and Medicine. The Oxford Dictionary of Sports Science & Medicine. Copyright © Michael Kent 1998, 2006, 2007. All rights reserved. Read more |
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| Veterinary Dictionary. Saunders Comprehensive Veterinary Dictionary 3rd Edition. Copyright © 2007 by D.C. Blood, V.P. Studdert and C.C. Gay, Elsevier. All rights reserved. Read more |
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| Wikipedia. This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Dystonia". Read more |
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