Elapidae

(vertebrate zoology) A family of poisonous reptiles, including cobras, kraits, mambas, and coral snakes; all have a pteroglyph fang arrangement.

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(Elapidae)

Class: Reptilia

Order: Squamata

Suborder: Serpentes

Family: Elapidae

Thumbnail description
Small to large venomous snakes

Size
7–200 in (18–500 cm)

Number of genera, species
60 genera; more than 300 species

Habitat
Highly variable depending on species; desert, savanna, rainforest, fully arboreal to fully marine

Conservation status
Vulnerable: 7 species; Lower Risk/Near Threatened: 2 species

Distribution
Southern United States to Central and South America, Africa, Asia, Australia, and the Pacific and Indian Oceans

Evolution and systematics

The two major families of venomous snakes are Elapidae, or the elapid snakes, and Viperidae, the vipers and pitvipers. The snakes in these families are similar in that they have fangs in the front of the mouth. The two groups arose independently from nonvenomous snake ancestors, however, so there are important differences between them. The overall appearance of elapids is much more like that of the primarily non-venomous colubrids than it is of the generally plump, short-tailed vipers. The main differences between elapids and vipers are in the structure of the venom delivery apparatus and the nature of the venom. Elapids have proteroglyphic dentition, which means "fixed front fangs." Vipers have solenoglyphic dentition, which means "movable front fangs." In elapids, the fangs are fixed in one position and are relatively short to avoid puncturing the snake's bottom lip. Vipers have long fangs that are hinged and fold back into the mouth. The venom of elapids is quite different from that of vipers. Elapids have neurotoxic venom (nerve poison), which acts mainly on the central nervous system. The venom affects heart function and breathing but causes little or no damage at the bite site. Vipers have primarily hemotoxic and myotoxic venom, which produces severe damage at the bite site, including complete necrosis of the surrounding tissue.

The venomous elapid snakes include 60 genera and more than 300 species. Because elapids represent approximately 10% of living snake species and more than 50% of species of venomous snakes, they are of considerable medical importance. The elapids are fantastically diverse in size, shape, color, ecology, and behavior, but they can be classified as follows according to size and distribution: cobras and mambas; coral snakes; terrestrial kraits; Australo-Papuan elapids, which include brown snakes, taipans, and death adders; sea kraits; and seasnakes.

Little is known about the origin of elapid snakes except that they are related to some African forms that seem to have "protoelapid" fangs. For example, the African and Middle East members of the genus Atractaspis are venomous and have front fangs, but they also have a number of characteristics that differentiate them from elapids and unite them with primarily nonvenomous species. The southern African genus Homoroselaps is confusing in that it has elapid fangs and venom but seems to have characteristics of Atractaspis.

Despite the confusion, elapids seem to form a monophyletic group, as does each of the major elapid lineages. Together elapids are primarily defined by the presence of a venom delivery system comprising two small permanently erect front fangs. Diverse data sets have been used to elucidate relationships among and within elapid lineages, including various aspects of morphology, protein albumins, karyotypes, allozymes, venom protein sequences, and DNA sequences. There is still some disagreement about the relationships between the major groups of elapids.

The number and content of elapid families and subfamilies have varied widely. Depending on perceived levels of differentiation, various authors have recognized either a single family, Elapidae, with two to six subfamilies or two families: the Elapidae, terrestrial elapids, and the Hydrophiidae, seasnakes. Evidence from studies of morphology and DNA sequences shows that seasnakes are most closely related to Australo-Papuan elapids and thus are part of elapid radiation.

The fully marine seasnakes evolved from terrestrial live-bearing Australian ancestors, and the partially marine sea kraits seem to be most closely related to terrestrial elapids in Asia and Melanesia. Most authorities recognize a single family, Elapidae, that has two subfamilies: the Elapinae, including coral snakes, cobras, mambas, and terrestrial kraits, and the Hydrophiinae, including all the Australo-Papuan elapids, sea kraits, and seasnakes.

Definite elapid snake fossils are rare but have been found in Miocene deposits in Europe, North America, Africa, and Australia. Because there are so few, these fossils have contributed little to the understanding of elapid evolution.

Physical characteristics

Elapids are generally slender, highly agile snakes with a colubrid-like head that is not very distinct from the neck and bears large, colubrid-like scales or scutes. Elapids lack the loreal scute that separates the nasal scute from the preorbital scutes (most nonvenomous colubrid snakes have this scute). Because the fangs are short, the mouth does not have to open wide when the snake strikes. The length of these snakes varies from 7 in (18 cm) (the rare Fijian, Ogmodon vitianus) to more than 200 in (5 m) (king cobra, Ophiophagus hannah). The body often has stripes that may be very colorful. Many cobras flatten when excited, and cobras are famous for the ability to spread their neck ribs to form a hood.

The coral snakes of the Americas can be unicolored (no bands), but most species are famous for having a bright series of alternating color bands. The snakes may be bicolored, tricolored, or even quadricolored. The bands serve as a warning to potential predators. Also famous is the diverse radiation of nonvenomous snake mimics of the coral snakes. Many species of nonvenomous snakes that live in the same regions as coral snakes have evolved coloration almost identical to that of coral snakes. It has been estimated that 18% of all snakes found in the Americas are coral snake mimics. There are twice the number of mimics as there are coral snake species.

Seasnakes have evolved many adaptations, from the partially marine existence of the sea kraits (Laticauda) to the fully marine existence of the seasnakes. The nostrils of all seasnakes have valves that form a tight seal around the mouth when the snake dives. Fully marine seasnakes move sinusoidally as do land snakes, but they propel themselves through the water with a paddle-shaped tail rather than by grabbing the substrate with wide belly scales as land snakes do. The belly scales of fully marine seasnakes are almost the same size as their other body scales.

Distribution

Elapids are found in the southern United States to Central and South America, Africa except for Madagascar, southern Asia, Australia, and the intervening Pacific and Indian Oceans. They are most diverse in equatorial regions. Although widely distributed, each of the major elapid groups tends to occupy a particular region. For example, the elapid fauna of the Americas includes only the diverse coral snake lineage, which has approximately 60 species. Several coral snake species exist in the United States from North Carolina to Florida and west to Arizona. Coral snake diversity increases greatly in Mexico and Central and South America. The cobra group occupies almost all of Africa, the Middle East, and all of southern Asia. Cobras reach to Java in the Indonesian archipelago. Mambas are found in southern and central Africa, and terrestrial kraits are found from India through Southeast Asia. The Australo-Papuan elapids are the most diverse in terms of species number. They are found throughout Australia and New Guinea. A few species of elapids are found on the Solomon Islands. The unusual Ogmodon vitianus is the sole species in Polynesia, where it lives deep underground on Fiji. Sea kraits are found in coastal areas of southern Asia through Southeast Asia, Melanesia, and Polynesia. Seasnakes are abundant on coral reefs in the warm waters around northern Australia, New Guinea, Indonesia, the Philippines, and all of Southeast Asia. A few species exist as far west as the Persian Gulf and as far east as French Polynesia. Only one species, the yellow-bellied seasnake (Pelamis platurus), extends beyond this region, and it is the only open-water or pelagic species. This snake is found in warm waters from the east coast of Africa to the west coast of North and Central America in the Pacific and Indian Oceans. It is almost certainly the most widely distributed snake species. No seasnakes are known to exist in the Atlantic Ocean.

Habitat

Elapid snakes have diverse habitats. Most are ground dwellers, found everywhere from rainforest to savanna to grassy plains to harsh desert. Some species have a preferred habitat; others are generalists. Some elapids seek shelter under rocks or in rodent burrows; others burrow into loose soil. Most cobras are terrestrial, but some are mostly arboreal or aquatic. African mambas spend most of their time in trees, where they are exceptionally graceful and fast. Almost all of the fully marine seasnakes and the partially marine sea kraits inhabit coral reefs, where they forage for prey, mostly fish and eels. Sea kraits come onto beaches and the surrounding rocks when they need to rest or lay their eggs.

Behavior

Many elapid snakes are active at dusk and at night. Others are active daytime foragers. Because elapids, like all snakes, are ectoderms and therefore must thermoregulate, the time at which they are active depends on the temperature. In cooler regions, such as southern Africa and southern Australia, elapid activity follows the seasons. Peak activity occurs during the warmer months, and hibernation during the colder months, although many species emerge on sunny winter days to bask. During the heat of summer, diurnal snakes are most active in the morning, late afternoon, and early evening, when it is cooler. In the spring and autumn, these species are active throughout the day because they do not become overheated.

Because snakes can be difficult to find, surprisingly little research has been conducted on the behavior of elapid snakes and snakes in general. The introduction of radio transmitters small enough to be surgically implanted into snakes has allowed researchers to follow snakes and document their daily activity through the seasons. The findings have shown that many elapids once thought sedentary are actually highly mobile, such as Australian death adders (genus Acanthophis) and the Australian broad-headed snake (Hoplocephalus bungaroides).

A cobra emerging from a woven basket and "dancing" to a snake charmer's flute is a familiar image. Egyptian, Asian, and Indian cobras are used for these demonstrations. Contrary to popular belief, the snakes are not being charmed or hypnotized. The snake is collected and placed in a woven basket, where it is secure. The charmer may reach into the basket and grab the snake at mid body but is careful to keep the snake off balance. When the charmer lifts the lid of the basket, the snake rises in a vertical defensive posture with hood spread. Because he knows cobras strike from a vertical posture downward, the charmer stays out of reach and sways from side to side as he plays. Snakes lack external ears and pick up only low-frequency airborne sounds, therefore the music has no influence on the cobra. The charmer's flute is only a prop; the cobra follows the charmer's movements. Some charmers use snakes immobilized by cooling, and some use unaltered cobras. There is evidence, however, that some charmers provoke cobras to strike a stick or a piece of rough cloth, which is forcefully pulled from the snake's mouth, taking the fangs with it.

Feeding ecology and diet

Elapids are diverse in both diet and method of obtaining food. These snakes use envenomation rather than constriction to subdue prey. The chief prey are small vertebrates (rats, mice, birds, snakes, lizards, frogs, and fishes) and sometimes eggs. Some snakes specialize. The southern African Rinkhal's cobra (Hemachatus haemachatus) has a special fondness for toads.

In Australia, only death adders (genus Acanthophis), brown snakes (genus Pseudonaja), black snakes (genus Pseudechis), and taipans (genus Oxyuranus) eat small mammals as a large part of the diet, but they also eat other prey. Many of Australia's diverse terrestrial elapid fauna specialize on small reptiles, mostly scincid lizards, which the snakes find by searching under cover or by active foraging. Other elapids specialize on frogs, which they find at water's edge or under cover.

Both the partially marine sea kraits (Laticauda) and the diverse fully marine seasnakes obtain all their food from the aquatic habitat. Sea kraits specialize on eels they find among the reefs. Seasnakes have diverse diets. Most eat relatively sedentary fish that are easy to catch, but they tend to specialize on one or a few fish shapes, ranging from short gobies to long eels to squid. Three species of seasnake eat only the egg masses of fishes.

King cobras eat other snakes, including venomous species. Australian bandy-bandy snakes (genus Vermicella) eat nothing but blindsnakes. Many coral snakes specialize on other snakes. Some species of Australian sand-swimming snakes of the genus Simoselaps eat nothing but the eggs of other reptiles. They ingest the small eggs whole and then, it is thought, regurgitate the empty shells.

Most elapids are active foragers. The Australian death adder (genus Acanthophis), however, stays in position and undulates the tip of its tail (which in contrast to the rest of the tail is yellowish white, resembling a larval insect) to lure prey. Australian whipsnakes (genus Demansia) have large eyes and are very active and visual daytime hunters. African mambas (genus Dendroaspis) also have large eyes to help them locate small mammals.

Reproductive biology

Elapids tend to reproduce once a year in spring, often after bouts of male combat over females. All coral snakes, mambas, terrestrial kraits, sea kraits, almost all cobras, and approximately half of the Australo-Papuan elapids are egg layers. Most snakes lay eggs, but viviparity (live-bearing) has evolved multiple times independently. Live-bearing is more common in species that live in cool climates because it is thought that mothers are able to control the developmental temperature of their offspring by behavioral thermoregulation. This ability is an important advantage in a short summer. The only cobra to evolve live-bearing is the southern African Rinkhal's cobra, which is reported to have litters of as many as 60 offspring. In Australia there is a diverse radiation of live-bearing elapids. Approximately half of the 20 genera and more than 90 species in Australia are live-bearers. There is dispute about how many times live-bearing has evolved in the Australian elapid radiation. It is known that live-bearing has evolved at least twice independently, once in the main live-bearing radiation and once in the red-bellied black snake (Pseudechis porphyriacus). The other members of this genus are egg layers. The fully marine seasnakes also are live-bearers.

Most elapids do not take care of their eggs or young. In egg-laying species, females find suitable spots to lay eggs— under a rock, in or under a log, or in a crevice—and vacate the site. The eggs incubate for approximately three months, and the young hatch and are immediately on their own. In live-bearing species, the mother goes through a three-month pregnancy and gives birth in a secluded spot. Like the hatch-lings, the liveborn young are immediately on their own. An exception is king cobras, which form a pair bond and build a nest from leaves and soil. King cobra pairs protect their nests and their eggs and can be very aggressive during breeding season.

Conservation status

Nine species are listed on the IUCN Red List. Seven of these are categorized as Vulnerable: Austrelaps labialis, Denisonia maculata, Echiopsis atriceps, E. curta, Furina dunmalli, Hoplocephalus bungaroides, and Ogmodon vitianus. Two species are categorized as Lower Risk/Near Threatened: Elapognathus minor and Simoselaps calonotus.

Conservation of snakes is relatively rare in most parts of the world, partly because little is known about most species. The best-studied elapid snake is the Australian broad-headed snake. This snake is distributed only in the sandstone country that surrounds greater Sydney. It is now rare and considered Vulnerable. Over the course of more than 10 years, researchers from the University of Sydney have documented the movement, behavior, and habitat preference of these snakes. It has long been known that broad-headed snakes over-winter under rocks on the edges of cliffs. The snakes, however, seemed to disappear in summer, so radio tracking was used to follow their movements. It was found that the snakes spend the summer far up in the forest canopy, where they hide in hollows, but that they use only large trees. The investigators also found that during the winter the snakes are very particular about the size of the rocks they use—too thin, and the snake becomes too hot; too thick, and the snake is not warm enough. Unfortunately for the snakes, the rocks are the same size that landscapers sell for gardens. Both large trees and appropriate-sized rocks must be preserved for the species to survive.

Much less is known about the conservation status of other elapid species. Hundreds of thousands of cobras are collected from the wild in Indonesia and other parts of Asia for the reptile skin trade. The cobra skins are turned into belts, wallets, and other pieces of apparel. There is little information about the effect of this practice on cobra populations. Similarly, degradation of the marine habitats of sea kraits and seasnakes is probably having an effect, but the effect has not been quantified. Loss of habitat is a primary concern for many elapid species because many of them are habitat specialists.

Significance to humans

Elapid snakes are one of the two major groups of venomous snakes. Many species are of special importance to humans because of the danger they represent. Many of the most venomous snakes are elapids. People are killed by elapid snakebites, but the danger of a snake has just as much to do with behavior as it does level of toxicity. For example, the Australian inland taipan, or fierce snake (Oxyuranus microlepidotus), has the most potent venom. Few people have been killed by this snake, however, because it inhabits inhospitable areas where people tend not to live. The taipan also is very shy and always retreats if it can. Similarly, seasnakes are highly venomous, but most are not inclined to bite, so the incidence of snake bites from seasnakes is extremely low. In contrast, some species of Asian cobra are less toxic but are common in densely populated regions, so people tend to encounter them more than they do more venomous snakes. Thus the incidence of fatal snake bites can be high. Australia has the greatest diversity of elapid snakes in terms of species number. Death from elapid bites is rare in Australia because of access to antivenin and widespread knowledge of the Sutherland pressure-immobilization first-aid technique (wrapping of the bitten area and splinting of the affected extremity). In parts of Africa, India, and southern Asia, death from elapid bite is a major medical problem.

Species accounts

Resources

Branch, B. Field Guide to Snakes and Other Reptiles of Southern Africa. Cape Town: Struik Publishers, 1998.

Broadley, D. G. FitzSimons' Snakes of Southern Africa. Johannesburg: Delta Books, 1983.

Campbell, J. A., and W. W. Lamar. The Venomous Reptiles of Latin America. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1989.

Cogger, H. G. Reptiles and Amphibians of Australia. 6th edition. Sydney: Reed New Holland, 2000.

Greene, Harry W. Snakes: The Evolution of Mystery in Nature. Berkley: University of California Press, 1997.

Greer, A. The Biology and Evolution of Australian Snakes. Chipping Norton, New South Wales: Surrey Beatty and Sons, 1997.

Heatwole, H. Sea Snakes. Sydney: University of New South Wales Press, 1999.

Roze, J. A. Coral Snakes of the Americas: Biology, Identification, and Venoms. Malabar, FL: Krieger Publishing, 1998.

Shine, R. Australian Snakes: A Natural History. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991.

Spawls, S., and B. Branch. The Dangerous Snakes of Africa. Halfway House, South Africa: Southern Book Publishers, 1995.

Keogh, J. S. "Molecular Phylogeny of Elapid Snakes and a Consideration of Their Biogeographic History." Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 63 (1998): 177–203.

Shine, R. "Allometric Patterns in the Ecology of Australian Snakes." Copeia 1994 (1994): 851–867. ——. "Sexual Size Dimorphism in Snakes Revisited." Copeia 1994 (1994): 326–346.

Slowinski, J., and J. S. Keogh. "Phylogenetic Relationships of Elapid Snakes Based on Cytochrome b mtDNA Sequences." Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 15 (2000): 157–164.

[Article by: J. Scott Keogh, PhD]

A family of venomous front-fanged snakes; includes cobras, kraits, mambas, coral snakes and hamadryads. Their poison is largely neurotoxic.

The noun has one meaning:

Meaning #1: cobras; kraits; mambas; coral snakes; Australian taipan and tiger snakes
  Synonym: family Elapidae

Elapidae
Egyptian cobra, Naja haje
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Subphylum: Vertebrata Class: Reptilia Order: Squamata Suborder: Serpentes Family: Elapidae Boie, 1827

The Elapidae, or elapids, are a family of venomous snakes found in tropical and subtropical regions around the world, including the Indian Ocean and the Pacific. They are characterized by possessing a set of hollow, fixed fangs through which they inject venom, and come in a wide range of sizes, from only 18 cm (Drysdalia) up to 6 m in length (Ophiophagus). Currently, 61 genera that include 231 species are recognized.^[1]

Description

Outwardly, terrestrial elapids look similar to the colubridae: almost all have long and slender bodies with smooth scales, a head that is covered with large shields and not always distinct from the neck, and eyes with round pupils. In addition, their behavior is usually quite active and most are oviparous. There are exceptions to all these generalizations: e.g. the death adders (Acanthophis) include short and fat, rough-scaled, very broad-headed, cat-eyed, live-bearing, sluggish ambush predators with partly fragmented head shields.

Some elapids are strongly arboreal (African Pseudohaje and Dendroaspis, Australian Hoplocephalus), while many others are more or less specialised burrowers (e.g. Ogmodon, Parapistocalamus, Simoselaps, Toxicocalamus, Vermicella) in either humid or arid environments. Some species have very generalised diets but many taxa have narrow prey preferences and correlated morphological specialisations, e.g. for feeding on other snakes, elongate burrowing lizards, squamate eggs, mammals, birds, frogs, fish, etc.

Sea snakes, which are also elapids, have adapted to a marine way of life in different ways and to various degrees. All have evolved paddle-like tails for swimming and the ability to excrete salt. Most also have laterally compressed bodies, ventral scales are much reduced in size, their nostrils are located dorsally (no internasal scales) and give birth to live young (ovoviviparous). In general they have the ability to respire through their skin; experiments with the yellow-bellied sea snake, Pelamis platurus, have shown that this species can satisfy about 20% of its oxygen requirements in this manner, allowing for prolonged dives. The sea kraits (Laticauda sp. ), are the least well-adapted to an aquatic life. They spend much of their time on land where they also lay their eggs (oviparous). They having wide ventral scales, the tail is not as well-developed for swimming, and their nostrils are separated by internasal scales. See also Sea snake.

All elapids have a pair of proteroglyphous fangs that are used to inject venom from glands located towards the rear of the upper jaws. The fangs are the first two teeth on each maxillary bone, which are enlarged and hollow, and usually only one is in place on each side at any time. The maxilla is intermediate in length and mobility between typical colubrids (long, less mobile) and viperids (very short, highly mobile). When the mouth is closed, the fangs fit into grooved slots in the buccal floor; in the longest-fanged elapids (e.g. Acanthophis, Oxyuranus) it is common for the fangs to pierce right through the intermandibular skin, which does not seem to endanger the snake. The fangs are usually below the front edge of the eye and are angled backwards; due to this construction, most elapids must actually bite in order to envenomate. This action is therefore not as quick as with the viperids, that can envenomate with only a quick, stabbing motion. Some elapids (Acanthophis, Oxyuranus, and especially Dendroaspis) have long fangs on quite mobile maxillae (the prefrontal and ectopterygoid contacts are nearly as close together as in viperids), and can therefore make very fast stabbing strikes like viperids. Elapids use their venom both to immobilize their prey and in self-defense.

Venom

All elapids are venomous and many are potentially deadly. The venoms are mostly neurotoxic and are considered more dangerous than the mainly proteolytic viper venoms. Members include the black mamba (Dendroaspis polylepis), a species many regard as the world's most dangerous snake, the fierce snake (Oxyuranus microlepidotus), which is the most venomous land snake, and Hydrophis belcheri, a sea snake and the most toxic venom of all snakes.

Genera

Genus[1]	Authority[1]	Species[1]	Subsp.*[1]	Common name	Geographic range[2]
Acalyptophis	Boulenger, 1869	1	0	Spiny-headed seasnake	Gulf of Thailand, South China sea, the Strait of Taiwan, and the coasts of Guangdong, Indonesia, Philippines, New Guinea, New Caledonia, Australia (Northern Territory, Queensland, Western Australia).
Acanthophis	Daudin, 1803	7	0	Death adders	Australia, New Guinea, Indonesia (Seram and Tanimbar).
Aipysurus	Lacépède, 1804	7	1	Olive sea snakes	Timor Sea, South China Sea, Gulf of Thailand, and coasts of Australia (North Territory, Queensland, West Australia), New Caledonia, Loyalty Islands, southern New Guinea, Indonesia, western Malaysia and Vietnam.
Aspidelaps	Fitzinger, 1843	2	4	Shieldnose cobras	South Africa (Cape Province, Transvaal), Namibia, southern Angola, Botswana, Zimbabwe,Mozambique.
Aspidomorphus	Fitzinger, 1843	3	0		New Guinea.
Astrotia	Fischer, 1855	1	0	Stoke's sea snake	Coastal areas from west India and Sri Lanka through Gulf of Thailand to China Sea, west Malaysia, Indonesia east to New Guinea, north and east coasts of Australia, Philippines.
Austrelaps	Worrell, 1963	3	0	Copperheads	Australia (South Australia, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania).
Boulengerina	Dollo, 1886	2	1	Water cobras	Cameroon, Gabon, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Congo, Central African Republic, Tanzania, Equatorial Guinea, Rwanda, Burundi, Zambia.
Bungarus	Daudin, 1803	12	4	Kraits	India (incl. Andaman Island), Myanmar, Nepal, Vietnam, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Cambodia, Indonesia (Java, Sumatra, Bali, Sulawesi), Peninsular Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand.
Cacophis	Günther, 1863	4	0	Rainforest crowned snakes	Australia (New South Wales, Queensland).
Calliophis	Gray, 1834	8	11	Oriental coral snakes	India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Indonesia, Cambodia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, Burma, Brunei, Philippines, Vietnam, Laos, southern China, Japan (Ryukyu Islands), Taiwan.
Demansia	Gray, 1842	9	2	Whipsnakes	New Guinea, continental Australia.
Dendroaspis	Schlegel, 1848	4	1	Mambas	Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, Malawi, Zimbabwe, South Africa, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria, Cameroon, Guinea, Gabon, Principe (Gulf of Guinea), Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Congo, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Equatorial Guinea, Angola, Sudan, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Eritrea, Senegal, Mali, Ethiopia, Ivory Coast, Namibia, Somalia, Swaziland, Zambia, Gambia, Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Sierra Leone.
Denisonia	Krefft, 1869	2	0	Ornamental snakes	Central Queensland and central northern New South Wales, Australia.
Drysdalia	Worrell, 1961	3	0	Southeastern grass snakes	Southern Australia (Western Australia, South Australia, Victoria, Tasmania, New South Wales).
Echiopsis	Fitzinger, 1843	1	0	Bardick	Southern Australia (Western Australia, South Australia, Victoria, New South Wales).
Elapognathus	Boulenger, 1896	2	0	Southwestern grass snakes	Western Australia.
Elapsoidea	Bocage, 1866	10	7	African or Venomous Garter snakes (unrelated to North American non-venomous Garter Snakes)	Senegal, South Africa, Mozambique, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Swaziland, Gambia, Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Uganda, Senegal, Sudan, Tanzania, Togo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Congo, Zambia, Kenya, north Burundi, Rwanda, Ethiopia, Uganda, Somalia.
Emydocephalus	Krefft, 1869	2	0	Turtlehead sea snakes	The coasts of Timor (Indonesian sea), New Caledonia, Australia (North Territory, Queensland, West Australia), and in the Southeast Asian Sea along the coasts of China, Taiwan, Japan, and the Ryukyu Island.
Enhydrina	Gray, 1849	2	0	Beaked sea snakes	In the Persian Gulf (Oman, United Arab Emirates, etc.), south to the Seychelles and Madagascar, SE Asian Sea (Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam), Australia (North Territory, Queensland), New Guinea and Papua New Guinea.
Ephalophis	M.A. Smith, 1931	1	0	Grey's mudsnake	North-western Australia.
Furina	Duméril, 1853	3	0	Pale-naped snakes	Mainland Australia.
Glyphodon	Günther, 1858	2	0	Brown-headed snakes	Australia (Queensland), New Guinea.
Hemachatus	Fleming, 1822	1	0	Spitting cobra	South Africa, Zimbabwe, Lesotho, Swaziland.
Hemiaspis	Fitzinger, 1861	2	0	Swamp snakes	Eastern Australia (New South Wales, Queensland).
Hemibungarus	Peters, 1862	1	2	Asian coral snakes	Taiwan, Japan (Ryukyu Islands).
Homoroselaps	Jan, 1858	2	0	Harlequin snakes	South Africa.
Hoplocephalus	Wagler, 1830	3	0	Broad-headed snakes	Eastern Australia (New South Wales, Queensland).
Hydrelaps	Boulenger, 1896	1	0	Port Darwin mudsnake	Northern Australia, southern New Guinea.
Hydrophis	Latreille In Sonnini & Latreille, 1801	34	3	Sea snakes	Indoaustralian and Southeast Asian waters.[3]
Kerilia	Gray, 1849	1	0	Jerdon's sea snake	Southeast Asian waters.[3]
Kolpophis	M.A. Smith, 1926	1	0	Bighead sea snake	Indian Ocean.[3]
Lapemis	Gray, 1835	1	1	Shaw's sea snake	Persian Gulf to Indian Ocean, South China Sea, Indo-Australian archipelago and the western Pacific.[3]
Laticauda	Laurenti, 1768	5	0	Sea kraits	Southeast Asian and Indoaustralian waters.
Leptomicrurus	Schmidt, 1937	4	2	Blackback coral snake	Northern South America.
Loveridgelaps	McDowell, 1970	1	0	Solomons small-eyed snake	Solomon Islands.
Micropechis	Boulenger, 1896	1	0	New Guinea small-eyed snake	New Guinea.
Micruroides	Schmidt, 1928	1	2	Western coral snakes	USA (Arizona, SW New Mexico), Mexico (Sonora, Sinaloa).
Micrurus	Wagler, 1824	69	54	Coral snakes	southern North America, South America.
Naja	Laurenti, 1768	20	5	Cobras	Africa, Asia.
Notechis	Boulenger, 1896	2	0	Tiger snakes	Southern Australia, including many offshore islands.
Ogmodon	Peters, 1864	1	0	Bola	Fiji.
Ophiophagus	Günther, 1864	1	0	King cobra	Bangladesh, Myanmar, Cambodia, China, India, Andaman Islands, Indonesia, Laos, Thailand, Vietnam, west Malaysia, Philippines.
Oxyuranus	Kinghorn, 1923	2	2	Taipans	Australia, New Guinea.
Parahydrophis	Burger & Natsuno, 1974	1	0	Northern mangrove sea snake	Northern Australia, southern New Guinea.
Paranaja	Loveridge, 1944	1	2	Many-banded snakes	West/central Democratic Republic of the Congo, Congo, Cameroon.
Parapistocalamus	Roux, 1934	1	0	Hediger's snake	Bougainville Island, Solomons.
Paroplocephalus	Keogh, Scott and Scanlon, 2000	1	0	Lake Cronin snake	Western Australia.
Pelamis	Daudin, 1803	1	0	Yellow-bellied sea snake	Indian and Pacific Oceans.
Praescutata	Wall, 1921	1	0		Persian Gulf, Indian Ocean, South Chinese Sea northeast to coastal region of Fujian and Strait of Taiwan.
Pseudechis	Wagler, 1830	7	0	Black snakes (and king brown)	Australia.
Pseudohaje	Günther, 1858	2	0	Forest cobras	Angola, Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Congo, Gabon, Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, Rwanda, Uganda, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Togo, Nigeria.
Pseudonaja	Günther, 1858	8	2	Venomous brown snakes (and dugites)	Australia.
Rhinoplocephalus	Müller, 1885	6	0	Australian Small-eyed snakes	Southern and eastern Australia, southern New Guinea.
Salomonelaps	McDowell, 1970	1	0	Solomons coral snake	Solomon Islands.
Simoselaps	Jan, 1859	13	3	Australian coral snakes	Mainland Australia.
Sinomicrurus	Slowinski et al., 2001	5	4		India, Myanmar, Vietnam, China, Taiwan, Japan.
Suta	Worrell, 1961	10	2	Hooded snakes (and Curl Snake)	Australia.
Thalassophis	P. Schmidt, 1852	1	0	Anomalous sea snake	South Chinese Sea (Malaysia, Gulf of Thailand), Indian Ocean (Sumatra, Java, Borneo).
Toxicocalamus	Boulenger, 1896	9	0	New Guinea Forest snakes	New Guinea (and nearby islands).
Tropidechis	Günther, 1863	2	0	Rough-scaled snake	Eastern Australia.
Vermicella	Gray In Günther, 1858	5	0	Bandy-bandies	Australia.
Walterinnesia	Lataste, 1887	1	0	Black desert cobra	Egypt, Israel, Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia.

* Not including the nominate subspecies (typical form).

Taxonomy

The table above lists all of the elapid genera and no subfamilies. In the past, many subfamilies were recognized, or have been suggested for the Elapidae, including the Elapinae, Hydrophiinae (sea snakes), Micrurinae (coral snakes), Acanthophiinae (Australian elapids) and the Laticaudinae (sea kraits). Currently, none are universally recognized. There is now good molecular evidence for reciprocal monophyly of two groups: the African, Asian and New World Elapinae, and Australasian and marine Hydrophiinae. Thus, the Australian terrestrial elapids are 'hydrophiines', though not sea snakes, while it is believed that Laticauda and the 'true sea snakes' evolved separately from among the Australasian land-snakes.

The type genus for the Elapidae was originally Elaps, but that group was moved to another family. In contrast to what usually happens in botany, the Elapidae family was not renamed. In the meantime, Elaps was renamed Homoroselaps and moved back to the Elapidae. However, Nagy et al. 2005 regard it as a sister taxon to Atractaspis which should therefore have been assigned to the Atractaspididae.

Cited references

Wikimedia Commons has media related to:

Elapidae

1. ^ ^{a b c d e} Elapidae (TSN 174348). Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Accessed on 27 November 2006.
2. ^ Family Elapidae at the New Reptile Database. Accessed 19 August 2007.
3. ^ ^{a b c d} The Hydrophiidae at Cyberlizard's home pages. Accessed [12 August] [2007].

Snake families
Chordata • Reptilia • Squamata
Alethinophidia	Acrochordidae • Aniliidae • Anomochilidae • Atractaspididae • Boidae • Bolyeriidae • Colubridae • Cylindrophiidae • Elapidae • Loxocemidae • Pythonidae • Tropidophiidae • Uropeltidae • Viperidae • Xenopeltidae
Scolecophidia	Anomalepididae • Leptotyphlopidae • Typhlopidae

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