electrolyte

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A material that conducts an electric current when it is fused or dissolved in a solvent, usually water. Electrolytes are composed of positively charged species, called cations, and negatively charged species, called anions. For example, sodium chloride (NaCl) is an electrolyte composed of sodium cations (Na⁺) and chlorine anions (Cl⁻). The ratio of cations to anions is always such that the substance is electrically neutral. If two wires connected to a light bulb and to a power source are placed in a beaker of water, the light bulb will not glow. If an electrolyte, such as sodium chloride, is dissolved in the water, the light bulb will glow because the solution can now conduct electricity. The amount of electric current that can be carried by an electrolyte solution is proportional to the number of ions dissolved. Thus, the bulb will glow more brightly if the amount of sodium chloride in the solution is increased. See also Ion.

Any substance that produces ions when dissolved is an electrolyte. These substances include ionic materials composed of simple monatomic ions, such as sodium chloride, or substances composed of polyatomic ions, such as ammonium nitrate (NH₄NO₃). When these substances are dissolved, hydrated ions are generated, as in reactions (1) and (2).
1

2

A special type of electrolyte is an acid, in which the cation is H⁺. When acids are dissolved in water, H⁺ ions are produced along with an anion, which can be either a monatomic ion, as in hydrochloric acid (HCl), or a polyatomic ion, as in nitric acid (HNO₃) or acetic acid (HC₂H₃O₂), as in reactions (3)–(5).
3

4

5

Electrolytes such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH) that yield the hydroxyl (OH⁻) anion when dissolved in water are called bases [reaction (6)]. Some molecules that do not contain ions, such as
6
ammonia (NH₃), generate OH⁻ ions when dissolved in water as in reaction (7); these bases are also electrolytes. Polar covalent
7
molecules, such as ethanol, dissolve in water but do not generate any ions and are called nonelectrolytes.

Many electrolytic substances completely dissociate into ions when they are dissolved in water. In these cases, the reactions shown above would proceed completely to the right, leaving only dissolved ions and no associated, electrically neutral molecules. For example, when sodium chloride is dissolved in water, all of the dissolved material is present as Na⁺ and Cl⁻ ions, with no dissolved NaCl molecules. Substances that completely dissociate are called strong electrolytes, because every molecule dissolved generates ions that contribute to the electrical conductivity. Ionic substances, such as NaCl and NH₄NO₃, are strong electrolytes. Acids and bases that completely dissociate are called strong acids and strong bases, and these substances are also strong electrolytes. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) and HNO₃ are strong acids, so every molecule of HCl or HNO₃ that dissolves generates a H⁺ cation and a Cl⁻ or NO₃⁻ anion, respectively.

Some substances dissolve in water but do not dissociate completely. For example, when acetic acid is dissolved in water, some molecules dissociate to form H⁺ and C₂H₃O₂⁻ ions, while others remain associated as C₂H₃O₂H units, which contain polar O-H bonds and are therefore readily soluble in water. Acids such as acetic acid that do not dissociate completely are called weak acids. Similarly, the reaction of ammonia with water in reaction (7) proceeds to only a small extent. Thus, some molecules of ammonia react with water to generate OH⁻ and NH₄⁺ ions, but many simply remain as NH₃. Since each dissolved molecule of ammonia does not generate an OH⁻ anion, ammonia is said to be a weak base. See also Ionic equilibrium.

In biological systems, electrolytes play important roles in regulating kidney function and the retention of water. Electrolytes are also vital for providing the electric current needed for nerve impulses in neurons.

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A liquid, gelatinous or solid material that contains ions. In a battery, the electrolyte is the material that allows electricity to flow from one plate to another (between positive and negative electrodes). See lithium polymer and batteries.

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Chemically salts that dissociate in solution and will carry an electric current; clinically used to mean the mineral salts of blood plasma and other body fluids, especially sodium and potassium.

Brand names: Colyte®, GoLYTELY®, MoviPrep®, NuLYTELY®, OCL® Solution, PEG 3350 and Electrolytes™, TriLyte™

Drug Forms:
• Polyethylene Glycol; Electrolytes oral solution (below)
• Sodium Bicarbonate, Sodium Chloride, Polyethylene Glycol 3350, Potassium Chloride Oral solution
• Polyethylene Glycol 3350, Sodium Chloride, Potassium Chloride, Sodium Bicarbonate, Sodium Sulfate Oral solution
• Polyethylene Glycol 3350, Sodium Bicarbonate, Sodium Chloride, Potassium Chloride, Sodium Sulfate, Anhydrous Oral solution

Espa�ol:
• Solución oral de polietilenglicol; electrólitos
• Preparación Intestinal, Solución oral
• Preparación Intestinal, Solución oral
• Preparación Intestinal, Solución oral

Polyethylene Glycol; Electrolytes oral solution

What is polyethylene glycol; electrolytes oral solution?

POLYETHYLENE GLYCOL; ELECTROLYTES solutions (CoLyte®, GoLytely®, NuLytely®, Moviprep®, or TriLyte™) are laxative solutions that are used to cleanse the bowel before colonoscopy, surgery or other procedures. The solution may also be used to treat other intestinal problems as determined by your health care professional. This laxative helps increase the water content of the stool and bowel movements become easier and more frequent. The electrolytes in the solution (like potassium) help prevent important mineral losses from the body. Generic solutions are available.

What should I tell my health care provider before I take this medicine?

They need to know if you have any of these conditions:
• a history of blockage of the stomach or intestine
• a history of seizure
• current abdomen distension or pain
• difficulty swallowing
• diverticulitis, ulcerative colitis, or other chronic bowel disease
• glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency
• phenylketonuria
• an unusual or allergic reaction to polyethylene glycol, other medicines, dyes, or preservatives
• pregnant or trying to get pregnant
• breast-feeding

How should I take this medicine?

Follow the directions for using this medicine provided by your doctor.

Before using this medicine you or your pharmacist need to fill the container with the amount of water indicated on the package label. Shake well before use and before each dose. Take this laxative solution by mouth. Take exactly as directed. Your health care professional will tell you when to start drinking this solution prior to your procedure. You will usually need to drink a certain amount of the solution every 10 minutes until the stool is all watery and clear, or alternatively, until the solution is gone. It is best to drink each portion quickly rather than sipping it. Do not take your medicine less often or more often than directed. You will usually have the first bowel movement about 1 hour after you begin drinking the solution. After that, you will have frequent bowel movements as your bowel is cleans out.

Follow your prescribers instructions for what is allowable in the diet. Do not eat any solid food for at least 2 hours, and preferably 3—4 hours, before you begin drinking this medicine. You usually must drink only clear, non-red colored liquids from the time you start this solution until the time your procedure is complete. Also, do not eat until after your surgery or procedure is complete.

Contact your pediatrician or health care professional regarding the use of this medicine in children. Special care may be needed.

What if I miss a dose?

You should talk to your prescriber for instructions if you are not able to complete the bowel preparation as advised. An inadequate prep may affect the examination results.

What drug(s) may interact with polyethylene glycol; electrolytes solution?

No specific drug interactions have been reported. However, if you regularly take other medications, check with your prescriber before taking this solution. Usually, only certain medications should be taken prior to the procedure; follow your health care providers instructions.

Tell your prescriber or health care professional about all other medicines you are taking, including non-prescription medicines, nutritional supplements, or herbal products. Also tell your prescriber or health care professional if you are a frequent user of drinks with caffeine or alcohol, if you smoke, or if you use illegal drugs. These may affect the way your medicine works. Tell your prescriber or health care professional before stopping or starting any of your medicines.

What should I watch for while taking polyethylene glycol; electrolytes solution?

Do not use this solution for longer than prescribed without advice from your prescriber or health care professional. See your healthcare professional for any changes in bowel habits, including constipation, that are severe or last longer than three weeks.

Do not inhale dust from the solution powder. This can make breathing difficult or may cause sneezing or an allergic-type reaction.

Drink plenty of clear liquids before, during, and after using this preparation. Otherwise, you can become dehydrated.

What side effects may I notice from taking polyethylene glycol; electrolytes solution?

Side effects that you should report to your prescriber or health care professional as soon as possible:
• difficulty breathing (rare)
• itching of the skin, hives, or skin rash (rare)
• seizure
• severe bloating, pain, or distension of the stomach
• vomiting

Side effects that usually do not require medical attention (report to your prescriber or health care professional if they continue or are bothersome):
• diarrhea or a frequent need to move the bowels are expected effects of this medication
• lower abdominal discomfort or cramps
• minor bloating
• nausea
• passing gas

Where can I keep my medicine?

Keep out of the reach of children in a container that small children cannot open.

While you are taking this medicine, store the solution in the refrigerator to improve the taste, do not freeze. Throw away any unused liquid medicine after 48 hours.

Last updated: 7/1/2002

Important Disclaimer: The drug information provided here is for educational purposes only. It is intended to supplement, not substitute for, the diagnosis, treatment and advice of a medical professional. This drug information does not cover all possible uses, precautions, side effects and interactions. It should not be construed to indicate that this or any drug is safe for you. Consult your medical professional for guidance before using any prescription or over the counter drugs.

A solution that produces ions (an ion is an atom or group of atoms that conduct electricity); for example, sodium chloride solution consists of free sodium and free chloride ions. In medical usage electrolyte usually means the ion itself; thus plasma electrolytes are the ions in the circulating blood, which include sodium, potassium, calcium, chloride, bicarbonate, and phosphate. Electrolytes are essential for the normal functioning of cells: imbalances of electrolytes in the body can have serious consequences.

Measurement of plasma electrolytes forms part of a thorough medical examination. Concentrations of various electrolytes can be altered by many diseases in which electrolytes are lost from the body (as in vomiting or diarrhoea) or are not excreted and accumulate (as in kidney failure). Electrolyte depletion or retention can also be caused by drugs (e.g. diuretics). When electrolyte concentrations are severely reduced they can be corrected by administering the appropriate substance by mouth or intravenously. Severe diarrhoea is also accompanied by dehydration: both fluids and electrolytes can be replaced by oral rehydration therapy. Excess electrolytes in the blood can be removed by dialysis or by drugs, including special absorbent resins that are taken by mouth or by enema (see calcium polystyrene sulphonate; sodium polystyrene sulphonate).

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A substance (acid, base, or salt) that can be dissolved in water and conducts an electric current. See also electrolyte drink.

. KEY TERMS Diuretic—A substance that removes water from the body by increasing urine production Glucose—A simple sugar that results from the breakdown of carbohydrates. Glucose circulates in the blood and is the main source of energy for the body Homeostasis—The complex set of regulatory mechanisms that works to keep the body at optimal physiological and chemical stability in order for cellular reactions to occur Hormone—A chemical messenger produced by one type of cell and travels through the bloodstream to change the metabolism of a different type of cell Serum—The clear fluid part of the blood that remains after clotting. Serum contains no blood cells or clotting proteins, but does contain electrolytes.

    Description
    Precautions
    Interactions
    Complications
    Parental concerns
    Resources

What are Electrolytes?

Electrolytes are ions that form when salts dissolve in water or fluids. These ions have an electric charge. Positively charged ions are called cations. Negatively charged ions are called anions. Electrolytes are not evenly distributed within the body, and their uneven distribution allows many important metabolic reactions to occur. Sodium (Na ), Potassium (K), Calcium (Ca2+), Magnesium (Mg2+ ), chloride (Cl-), phosphate (HPO42-), bicarbonate (HCO3-), and Sulfate (SO4-) are important electrolytes in humans.

What is the Purpose of Electrolytes?

Electrolytes play a critical role in almost every metabolic reaction in the body. For example, they:

• Help control water balance and fluid distribution in the body
• Create an electrical gradient across cell membranes that is necessary for muscle contraction and nerve transmission
• Regulate the acidity (pH) of the blood
• Help regulate the level of oxygen in the blood
• Are involved in moving nutrients into cells and waste products out of cells

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Electrolytes are molecules that, in solution, dissociate into positively charged ions (cations) and negatively charged ions (anions). Principal ions in body fluids are sodium, potassium, and chloride. A 70 kg adult has a body content of approximately 100 g sodium, 140 g potassium, and 95 g chloride. To maintain a stable body content, the amount of principal ions lost must equal the amount consumed. During growth and during pregnancy, the amount accreted for tissue formation also must be considered.

Physiological Functions

Sodium is the predominant cation in fluids outside the cells (extracellular fluid), whereas potassium is the predominant cation in the intracellular fluid. Chloride is the major anion of the extracellular fluid. Sodium plays a central role in regulating body fluid balance and distribution of fluid between the extracellular and intracellular compartments. As sodium is the major osmotically active particle in the extracellular fluid, sodium and its accompanying anion determines the osmolar concentration, or osmolarity, of this compartment. An increase in sodium concentration will increase the osmolarity of the extracellular fluid, thus causing water to move out of the cells into the extracellular compartment. It will also cause water retention by stimulating the thirst mechanism and by decreasing urine flow. The opposite occurs when sodium concentration is decreased. Thus, sodium plays a central role in regulating body fluid balance and the distribution of fluid between the extracellular and intracellular compartments.

Potassium is necessary for normal growth and plays an important function in cell metabolism, enzyme reactions, and synthesis of muscle protein. Both sodium and potassium are involved in maintaining proper acidity (pH) of the blood and in maintaining nerve and muscle functions. Normal resting membrane potentials of nerve and muscle cells range between –50 and 100 mV, with the inside of the cells negative with respect to the outside. These resting membrane potentials are maintained by the chemical gradient of potassium across cell membranes. Activation of excitable cells alters their membrane permeabilities to sodium and potassium, leading to changes in their membrane potentials. A weak stimulus causes a small depolarization (the inside of the cell is made less negative) as a result of sodium influx along its electrochemical gradient via the voltage-gated sodium channels in cell membranes. This is followed by repolarization, which is a manifestation of potassium efflux. If the stimulus is sufficiently strong, large changes in the membrane potential occur, during which the membrane potential may change from –70 mV to +30 mV, and then repolarize back to its resting membrane potential. This action potential, cause by alternation of potassium steady-state potentials with pulsed sodium potentials, gives rise to a traveling wave of depolarization that is conducted along the nerve fiber to exert an effect on the effector cells it innervates (supplies with nerves). In muscles, action potential leads to muscle contraction.

Dietary sodium chloride in foods and beverages is absorbed mostly in the small intestine. Active transport of sodium out of the small intestinal epithelial cells across their basolateral membrane provides an electrochemical gradient for the absorption of sodium across the luminal membrane. Entry of sodium through carrier proteins can either transport other solutes against their concentration gradient in the same direction (co-transport) or in an opposite direction (counter-transport). A number of transporters have receptor sites for binding sodium and glucose, galactose, or amino acids. Therefore, entry of sodium across the luminal membrane also brings in a solute. Counter-transport mechanisms operating in the kidneys allow excess hydrogen and potassium to be excreted in the urine.

Consumption of Sodium, Chloride, and Potassium

Consumption usually exceeds the needs of an individual, although the amount consumed varies widely with dietary habits. Most natural foods contain high potassium content but are lower in sodium content (Table 1). American adults consume an average of 2.5 to 3.5 g of potassium daily. Individuals consuming large amounts of fruits and vegetables may have a daily intake of as high as 11 g. Sodium is consumed mainly as sodium chloride (table salt). A small amount is consumed as sodium carbonate, sodium citrate, and sodium glutamate. Intakes of sodium vary, averaging 2 to 5 g/day of sodium or 5 to 13 g/day of sodium chloride. Only about 10 percent of sodium intake is from natural foods, the rest from sodium salts added during cooking and at the table, and from salts added during processing of foods. In regions where consumption of salt-preserved foods is customary, intake of sodium can be as high as 14 to 20 g/day.

Under normal circumstances, about 99 percent of dietary sodium, chloride, and potassium is absorbed. Absorption occurs along the entire length of the intestine, the largest fraction being absorbed in the small intestine and the remaining 5 to 10 percent in the colon. Potassium is also secreted in the colon. Various homeostatic regulatory mechanisms, the most important of which is aldosterone, modulate the absorption of sodium and secretion of potassium.

Loss of Sodium, Chloride, and Potassium

Obligatory loss of fluids through skin, urine, and feces invariably causes loss of these ions. Minimal obligatory loss for an adult consuming average intakes has been estimated to be 115 mg/day for sodium and 800 mg/day for potassium. Over 95 percent of loss is in the urine. Under most circumstances, loss of chloride parallels that of sodium. Loss of these ions can increase greatly in diuresis, vomiting, and diarrhea. Loss of sodium chloride can also increase greatly from profuse sweating.

Recommended Intake. Daily minimum needs can be estimated from the amount required to replace obligatory (Table 2). The need is increased in infants and children, and during pregnancy and lactation. Estimated safe minimum intake levels are higher than the minimum requirements to account for the various degrees of physical activity of individuals and environmental conditions. Average intakes in the United States are higher than the estimated safe minimum levels of sodium chloride (1.3 g/day) and potassium (2 g/day).

Table 1

Food sources of sodium, chloride, and potassium(mg/100 g)
	Sodium	Chloride	Potassium
Natural Foods
Beef, lean (ribs, loin)	65	59	355
Pork, lean (ribs, loin)	70	—	285
Chicken fryers (with skin)	83	85	359
Salmon, fresh	48	59	391
Milk (pasteurized, whole cow's)	55	100	139
Wheat flour (whole)	2	38	290
Rice (polished, raw)	6	27	110
Potatoes	3	79	410
Carrots	50	69	311
Beans (string, fresh)	1.7	33	256
Apricots	0.6	—	440
Dates (dried)	1	290	790
Oranges	1	3	170
Almonds	4	2	773
Processed Foods
Bacon (medium fat)	1770	—	225
Beef sausages	810	1100	150
Smoked salmon	1880	2850	420
Cheese (Cheddar)	700	—	82
Butter (unsalted)	7	10	23
Bread (whole meal)	540	860	220
Potato chips	550	890	1190
Carrots (canned, drained solids)	236	450	110
Beans (string, canned, drained solids)	236	300	95
SOURCE: Lentner, Cornelius, ed. Geigy Scientific Tables, 8th ed., vol. 1.

Table 2

Estimated minimum requirement across the life cycle
	Sodiummg/day	Chloridemg/day	Potassiummg/day
Infants
0–0.5 y	120	180	500
0.5–1.0 y	200	300	700
Children
1 y	225	350	1000
2–5 y	300	500	1400
6–9 y	400	600	1600
10–18 y	500	750	2000
Adults
>18 y	500	750	2000
SOURCE: National Research Council. Recommended Dietary Allowances, 10th ed.

The association of high salt intake with hypertension and the beneficial effects of potassium in hypertension has led to recommendations that daily intake of salt should not exceed 6 g and that of potassium should be increased to 3.5 g. This can be achieved by increasing intake of dietary fruits and vegetables.

Regulation of Sodium, Chloride, and Potassium Balance

Various mechanisms regulate excretion of these ions by the kidneys to maintain homeostatic equilibrium of body fluids. Urinary sodium excretion is controlled by varying the rate of sodium reabsorption from the glomerular filtrate by tubular cells, whereas potassium excretion is controlled by varying the rate of tubular secretion of potassium.

Abnormally low blood volume (hypovolemia) in sodium deficit increases renal sodium chloride reabsorption by increasing sympathetic discharge to the kidneys, and by stimulation of two hormonal systems, the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone and the antidiuretic systems. This results in the production of low urine volume with low sodium and chloride contents. Hypovolemia also initiates the thirst mechanism and increases an appetite for salt (or salt cravings).The presence of salt appetite in animals is to ensure an adequate intake of salt to protect the extracellular fluid volume from excessive loss of sodium due to sweating, diarrhea, pregnancy, or lactation. The development of salt appetite is of significance in the successful adaptation to a terrestrial life, especially in herbivorous animals. The need for salt can be satisfied by providing cattle and sheep with salt licks. Humans and other carnivores are less dependent on separate supplies of salt because dietary salt can be obtained from meat. However, they may develop a craving for salt when they are sodium deficient. This deficit-induced salt craving may be mediated by hormones acting on the brain and by changes in gustatory response. Abnormally high blood volume (hypervolemia) in sodium excess increases renal excretion of sodium chloride by suppression of sympathetic discharge to the kidneys, suppression of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone and antidiuretic systems, and stimulation of the secretion of atrial natriuretic peptides.

Aldosterone is the most important hormone regulating secretion of potassium. Aldosterone secretion is triggered by angiotensin II, by high plasma potassium concentration, or by low plasma sodium concentration. Plasma concentrations of potassium and hydrogen also affect directly the secretion of potassium by the distal nephrons. The rate of potassium secretion parallels the plasma potassium concentration. Secretion of potassium in response to changes in acid-base balance (which affects plasma pH) is complex. In general, acute acidosis decreases secretion of potassium, whereas acute alkalosis increases secretion and loss of potassium from the body. Response to chronic acid-base disorders is varied.

Sodium, Chloride, and Potassium Imbalance

Acute excessive intakes do not normally result in retention of sodium, chloride, and potassium because of the capacity of the kidneys to excrete these ions. Retention occurs when kidney function is compromised. Dietary deficiency does not normally occur because normal consumption usually exceeds body needs.

Since the extracellular fluid volume changes in parallel with its sodium concentration, sodium retention in renal failure or congestive heart failure results in edema and possibly hypertension (Table 3). Excessive loss of sodium resulting in hypovolemia and hypotension can occur through diuresis, Addison's disease, severe vomiting, or diarrhea.

Changes in plasma concentration of potassium affects the excitability of nerves and muscle cells (Table 3). Retention of potassium causes hyperkalemia (plasma potassium concentration exceeding 5.0 mmol/l), and depletion causes hypokalemia (plasma potassium concentration less than 3.5 mmol/l). Retention of potassium occurs when there is a lack of aldosterone secretion, or a lack of responsiveness of the kidney to aldosterone. An important clinical manifestation of hyperkalemia is cardiac arrhythmia, which can lead to cardiac arrest. Depletion of potassium can occur through hyperaldosteronism, diuresis, vomiting, or diarrhea. Manifestations of hypokalemia include depressed neuromuscular functions and, in more severe hypokalemia, cardiac arrhythmias.

Table 3

Imbalance of sodium and potassium
Primary defect	Pathological causes	Clinical manifestation
sodium retention	congestive heart failure renal failure Conn's syndrome	edema, hypertension
sodium depletion	excessive perspiration Addison's disease diuretic therapy renal diseases prolonged vomiting diarrhea	orthostatic hypotension, muscular weakness and cramps, dizziness and syncope, circulatory shock
potassium retention	aldosterone deficiency	cardiac arrhythmias leading to cardiac arrest
potassium depletion	wasting diseases and starvation hyperaldosteronism metabolic alkalosis diuretic therapy renal diseases prolonged vomiting diarrhea	muscle weakness, impairment of neuromuscular function, cardiac arrhythmias
SOURCE: Palmer, Alpern, and Seldin; Rodriguez-Soriano; Toto and Seldin.

Nutritional Considerations

Epidemiological and experimental evidence has implicated habitual high dietary salt consumption in the development of hypertension, but controversy remains regarding the importance of sodium salts in the regulation of blood pressure and the mechanisms by which salt influences blood pressure (Stamler, 1977). Intervention studies of dietary salt restrictions to lower blood pressure have produced mixed results. Nevertheless, various clinical trials indicate some beneficial effects of dietary restriction of sodium on blood pressure, and it may also decrease the incidence of stroke and ischemic heart disease.

High consumption of potassium, found in foods like oranges, apricots, and dates, on the other hand, appears to have a protective action against cardiovascular diseases, although the mechanism of action is not known. Epidemiological studies have demonstrated an inverse relationship of potassium intake with blood pressure, incidence of stroke, and other cardiovascular diseases (Young, Huabao, and McCabe). A direct relationship between blood pressure and the ratio of sodium to potassium in the urine has also been found (Stamler).

Repeated intake over a long period of salt from salted and smoked products is associated with atrophic gastritis and gastric cancer. However, experimental evidence indicates that salt alone is not carcinogenic; the high dietary salt content may enhance the initiation of cancer by facilitating the action of any carcinogen, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, present in the diet (Cohen and Roe, 1977), or potentiating Helicobacter pylori–associated carcinogenesis (Fox et al., 1999).

Diarrhea

Daily, about 8 to 10 l of water and large amounts of ions enter the gastrointestinal tract; about 1 to 2 l are from the diet, the rest from secretions of the alimentary tract. The greater part of this fluid is absorbed by the intestinal cells so that only about 150 ml of fluid are lost daily in the stool of an adult. Stools contain a low content of sodium and chloride but a high content of potassium so that the daily losses averages 6 mmol for sodium, 12 mmol for potassium, 3 mmol for chloride, and 5 mmol for bicarbonate. Loss of this water and ions can increase greatly in diarrhea, and if extreme, several liters of fluid can be lost, leading to dehydration and electrolyte and acid-base disturbances.

Diarrhea is defined as an increase in stool liquidity and a fecal volume of more than 200 ml/day in adults. Clinically, the most common and important causes of diarrhea are osmotic and secretory. Ingestion of a poorly absorbable solute, such as magnesium sulfate, or malabsorption or maldigestion of a specific solute because of enzyme deficiencies, as seen in lactase deficiency, can cause osmotic diarrhea. The presence of these solutes increases the intestinal luminal osmolarity, causing water to be retained in the lumen.

Various viral and bacterial infections can cause secretory diarrhea. Enteroinvasive bacteria such as Shigella and Salmonella invade intestinal mucosa to produce ulceroinflammatory lesions resulting in a failure of normal absorption. On the other hand, bacteria such as Vibrio cholerae release toxins that increase secretion of sodium chloride and water. If the cholera is severe, up to 18 l of watery stools can be passed in a day. These stools contain ionic concentrations similar to that of plasma, so that large amounts of sodium, chloride, and potassium can be lost.

Dehydration caused by diarrhea ranges from mild to severe. The severity of dehydration can be assessed clinically by examining the patient for sunken eyeballs, skin turgor, mental status, blood pressure, and urine output. Fluid replacement is of utmost importance, especially in severe dehydration, to prevent circulatory collapse. Although diarrhea causes losses of sodium as well as potassium and bicarbonate, the immediate concern in treating severe diarrhea is to replace sodium and water to restore the circulatory volume. Dehydration in diarrhea can be reversed by oral or, in emergency, intravenous rehydration therapy.

The World Health Organization has recommended the use of oral rehydration therapy for treatment of mild to moderate cases of diarrhea. This program has been very successful in reducing mortality from diarrheal diseases, particularly in infants in developing countries. Oral rehydration fluid contains 3.5 g of sodium chloride, 2.5 g of sodium bicarbonate, 1.5 g of potassium chloride, and 20 g of glucose in 1 l of water. An alternative household remedy is to make a solution containing three "finger pinches" of salt, a "fistful of sugar" and one quart of water. Addition of sugar to the oral rehydration fluid helps to increase the absorption of sodium chloride through the sodium-glucose transporter system in the small intestine.

Thermoregulation Through Perspiration

Heat is produced continuously by the body during metabolism, and it is also taken up by the body from the environment by radiation and conduction. Heat is lost from the body by radiation, conduction and convection, and evaporation. Even in the absence of perspiration, water is lost continuously from the body by evaporation from the upper respiratory tract and by passive evaporation from the skin. These insensible water losses amount to a total of about 0.6 l/day, of which slightly more than 50 percent is from the skin. For every liter of water that evaporates from the body, 580 kcal (2428 kJ) of heat is dissipated. During intense physical exertion or at a high ambient temperature, loss of heat from radiation, conduction, and insensible water loss are insufficient to prevent a rise in body temperature. Under these circumstances, heat loss is enhanced by the production and evaporation of sweat. Loss of heat by evaporation of sweat is an effective means of removing excess heat from the body, and it can be controlled by regulating the rate of sweating. When the body temperature rises above 98.6°F (37°C), stimulation of the temperature-regulating center in the hypothalamus causes sweating.

Sweat is produced by sweat glands by actively secreting into ducts a fluid similar in composition to that of plasma. As this primary secretion passes along the ducts of the sweat glands to the surface of the skin, sodium and chloride are absorbed in excess of water, resulting in the production of a dilute fluid that has a lower content of sodium and chloride. Sodium chloride content in sweat varies; it depends on the rate of flow. For a young adult, the average value is about 50 mmol/l for sodium and 30 mmol/l for chloride. The transport mechanisms for sodium and chloride are affected in patients suffering from cystic fibrosis so that their concentrations in the sweat are increased. For the purpose of diagnosis, the upper limit of the normal values for children and young adults are set at 70–80 mmol/l for sodium and 60–70 mmol/l for chloride (Lentner, ed.).

Rate of sweat production depends on the ambient temperature and humidity, and the degree of activity of the individual. For a 70 kg man doing light work at an ambient temperature of 84°F (29°C), daily loss is about 2 to 3 l. An unacclimatized individual who is performing hard physical activity in a hot, humid environment may lose, for a short time, up to 2 to 4 l/hour of sweat. As the duration of perspiration increases, the rate of production decreases to about 0.5 l/hour. Therefore, even at maximal sweating, the rate of heat loss may not be rapid enough to dissipate the excess heat from the body. Dehydration from excessive loss of water and sodium chloride stimulates the thirst mechanism, and if water intake is not increased, it can cause weakness and, if severe, circulatory collapse.

Adaptation to heat leads to physiological changes that include an increase in sweat production, an increase in plasma volume, and a decrease in concentration of sodium and chloride in the sweat and urine. These latter two effects are caused by an increase in aldosterone secretion as a result of dehydration and loss of sodium from the body. The decrease in the concentration of sodium and chloride in sweat and urine allows for better conservation of these ions in the body. An unacclimatized person who sweats profusely often loses as much as 13 to 30 g of salt per day for the first few days, but after four to six weeks of acclimatization the loss can be as low as 3 to 5 g a day.

There is a limit at which the body can lose heat even when perspiring maximally. The progressive rise in body temperature will affect the heat-regulating ability of the hypothalamus, resulting in a decrease in sweating. Therefore, a high body temperature tends to perpetuate itself unless measures are taken specifically to decrease the body temperature. When the body temperature rises beyond a critical temperature of 106°F (41°C), the person is likely to develop heat stroke. Symptoms include dizziness, abdominal distress, delirium, and eventually loss of consciousness. Some of these symptoms are exacerbated by a mild degree of circulatory shock as a result of sodium loss and dehydration.

Bibliography

Cohen, A. J., and F. J. Roe. "Evaluation of the Aetiological Role of Dietary Salt Exposure in Gastric and Other Cancers in Humans." Food and Chemical Toxicology 35 (1997): 271–293.

Fox, James G., et al. "High Salt Diet Induces Gastric Epithelial Hyperplasia and Parietal Cell Loss, and Enhances Helicobacter pylori Colonization in C57BL/6 Mice." Cancer Research 59 (1999): 4823–4828.

Lentner, Cornelius, ed. Geigy Scientific Tables. 8th ed., vol. 1. Basel: Ciba-Geigy Limited, 1981.

National Research Council. Recommended Dietary Allowances. 10th ed. Washington, D. C.: National Academy Press, 1989.

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—Hwai-Ping Sheng

(i-lek-truh-leyet)

A substance that can serve as a conductor for an electric current when it is dissolved in a solution. Electrolytes are found in the blood and tissue fluids of the body.

Electrically conducting liquid (wet) or paste (dry)

any substance that, when in solution or molten, can undergo (partial or complete) dissociation into ions and hence is able to conduct an electric current by the movement of the ions.

Previous:	electrolysis, electrolectin, electrokinetic potential
Next:	electrolyte balance, electrolytic, electrolytic conductivity

A chemical substance which, when dissolved in water or melted, dissociates into electrically charged particles (ions), and thus is capable of conducting an electric current. The principal positively charged ions in the body fluids (cations) are sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), calcium (Ca²+), and magnesium (Mg²+). The most important negatively charged ions (anions) are chloride (Cl⁻), bicarbonate (HCO³−), and phosphate (PO₄³−). These electrolytes are involved in metabolic activities and are essential to the normal function of all cells. Concentration gradients of sodium and potassium across the cell membrane produce the membrane potential and provide the means by which electrochemical impulses are transmitted in nerve and muscle fibers.
The concentration of the various electrolytes in body fluids is maintained within a narrow range. However, the optimal concentrations differ in the extracellular fluid and intracellular fluid. An electrolyte imbalance exists when the serum concentration of an electrolyte is either too high or too low.
Stability of the electrolyte balance depends on adequate intake of water and the electrolytes, and on homeostatic mechanisms within the body that regulate the absorption, distribution and excretion of water and its dissolved particles.
The effects of an electrolyte imbalance are not isolated to a particular organ or system. In general, however, imbalances in calcium concentrations affect the bones, kidney and gastrointestinal tract. Calcium also influences the permeability of cell membranes and thereby regulates neuromuscular activity. sodium affects the osmolality of blood and therefore influences blood volume and pressure and the retention or loss of interstitial fluid. potassium affects muscular activities, notably those of the heart, intestines and respiratory tract, and also affects neural stimulation of the skeletal muscles.

• e. clearance ratio — see fractional excretion tests.
• e. disturbances — include hyper- and hypo-potassemia, natremia, phosphatemia, calcemia, chloremia.
• e. fluid balance — balance between fluid and electrolytes.
• e. homeostasis — maintenance of the osmotic pressure of the blood and tissue fluids by the maintenance of a proper balance between the normal electrolytes in the fluid, and at the same time maintaining adequate concentrations of calcium and magnesium and the proper acid–base balance.
• e. solution therapy — see fluid therapy.

(ē-lek′trō-līt)
n

A solution that conducts electricity by means of its ions.

For a list of words related to electrolyte, see:

• Physiology - electrolyte: substance that ionizes in solution and conducts electric current
• Electricity and Magnetism - electrolyte: conducting medium in which flow of current leads to movement of charged ions
• Substances, Particles, and Atomic Architecture - electrolyte: liquid that conducts electricity due to presence of ions
• Electricity and Electronics - electrolyte: conducting medium in which flow of current leads to movement of charged ions

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See words rhyming with "electrolyte."

  See crossword solutions for the clue Electrolyte.

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Dansk (Danish)
n. - elektrolyt, akkumulatorvæske

Nederlands (Dutch)
elektrolyt (soort elektrische geleider)

Français (French)
n. - électrolyte

Deutsch (German)
n. - Elektrolyt (durch Strom zersetzbarer Stoff)

Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - (φυσ.) ηλεκτρολύτης

Italiano (Italian)
elettrolito

Português (Portuguese)
n. - eletrólito (m) (Quím.) (Fís.)

Русский (Russian)
электролит

Español (Spanish)
n. - electrólito

Svenska (Swedish)
n. - elektrolyt

中文（简体）(Chinese (Simplified))
电解物, 电解液, 电解质

中文（繁體）(Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 電解物, 電解液, 電解質

한국어 (Korean)
n. - 전해물

日本語 (Japanese)
n. - 電解液, 電解質

العربيه (Arabic)
‏(الاسم) الالكتروليت ( المنحل بالكهرباء)‏

עברית (Hebrew)
n. - ‮אלקטרוליט, נוזל הניתן לפירוק באמצעות זרם חשמלי, בייחוד נוזל בסוללה‬

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