Environmental Protection Agency

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An agency of the federal government charged with a variety of responsibilities relating to protection of the quality of the natural environment, including research and monitoring, promulgation of standards for air and water quality, and control of the introduction of pesticides and other hazardous materials into the environment.

An agency of the U.S. Government established to enforce federal pollution abatement laws and to implement various pollution prevention programs.
Example: The Environmental Protection Agency requires Permits for the siting of manufacturing facilities that may introduce pollution into the air or public waters. The EPA also provides grants to local governments to assist in construction of sewage treatment plants.

In December 1970, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was established as an independent agency. Reorganization Plan 3 of 1970 consolidated fifteen components from five agencies for the purpose of grouping all environmental regulatory activities under a single agency. Most of these functions were housed in the Department of the Interior, Department of Agriculture, and the Department of Health, Education and Welfare.

The purpose of the EPA is to ensure that all Americans and the environment in which they live are safe from health hazards. The EPA has a number of goals: clean air, clean and safe water, safe food, preventing and reducing pollution, water management and restoration of waste sites, redirection of international pollution, and credible deterrents to pollution. Also, the EPA engages in education about pollution and its environmental risks.

The first four goals deal with the immediate environment of people: clean air; clean and safe water; safe food; and preventing pollution and reducing risks in our environment. The remaining goals deal with education, the clean-up of existing pollution, and efforts in the global arena. They involve better water management, the reduction of cross-border environmental risks, the expansion of Americans' right to know about their environment, sound service, improved understanding of environmental risks, credible deterrents to pollution, and greater compliance with the law and effective management.

In addition to these goals, the EPA has adopted a number of principles to guide management in establishing priorities. These guidelines are to reduce environmental risks, to prevent pollution, to focus on children's health, to establish partners with local governments, to maximize public participation, to emphasize community based solutions, to work with Indian tribes, and to choose cost-effective solutions. The EPA also is engaged in ongoing educational programs, which emphasize the community's right to know about its environmental risks.

The EPA has to enforce fifteen or more statutes or laws, including the Clean Air Act; the Clean Water Act; the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act; the Endangered Species Act; the Pollution Prevention Act; and the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticides Act. The EPA also enforces other laws dealing with pollution and toxic substances.

The EPA has had some major successes since its inception. In the area of air quality: (1) More than half of the large cities now meet air-quality standards; (2) emissions of common air pollutants have dropped by an average of 24 percent; and (3) blood lead levels in children have declined by 75 percent. In the area of water quality: (1) 60 percent of the nation's waterways are safe for fishing and swimming; (2) ocean dumping has been banned; and (3) standards for wastewater have been established for fifty industries. In the area of toxic and pesticide management: (1) DDT has been banned; (2) safer pesticides have been introduced; and (3) toxic emissions have been reduced by 39 percent. Finally, the EPA has been able to set many standards covering a wide range of pollutants. More information is avail able from the EPA at 401 M Street SW, Washing ton, D.C. 20460-0003; (202)260-2090; or http://www.epa.gov.

Bibliography

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). "EPA's Mission." Archived at: http://www.epa.gov/epahome. 1999.

EPA. "Frequently Asked Questions." Archived at: http://www.epa.gov.gov/history. 1999.

EPA. "Research Programs." Archived at: http://www.epa.gov/epahome. 1999.

EPA. "Twenty-Five Years of Environmental Progress at a Glance." Archived at: http://www.epa.gov/25years. 1999.

[Article by: MARY JEAN LUSH; VAL HINTON]

A federal agency charged with the approval and overseeing of the use and disposal of hazardous materials. Workplace management of hazardous materials falls under the jurisdiction of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).

In response to a growing environmental movement, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was formed in 1970 by President Richard Nixon through a Congressionally approved reorganization plan that joined together parts of existing federal agencies, including parts of the U.S. Public Health Service (USPHS). The goal was to centralize federal organizational components involved with protecting human and ecological health from environmental threats. The EPA is responsible, either alone or with other agencies, for administering over twenty federal laws, including the Clean Air Act; the Clean Water Act; the Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability Act (Superfund Act); the Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act; the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act; the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act; the Safe Drinking Water Act; and the Toxic Substances Control Act. It differs from other federal agencies with health regulatory responsibilities by not having a defining legislative act (e.g., the Food and Drug Act for FDA). The administrator of EPA reports directly to the president and is sometimes unofficially accorded Cabinet status. EPA is organized into programmatic offices responsible for administering one or more of the environmental laws. There also are a number of crosscutting organizational components, including an Office of Research and Development responsible for assuring that EPA's activities are guided by sound science.

Under EPA oversight, there has been a substantial reduction in overt pollution. Urban air is visibly cleaner, the nation's rivers and beaches are now more swimmable and fishable; there is much less illegal dumping of hazardous wastes; recycling of household and industrial products is increasing; and it is far less likely that a manufactured chemical will be toxic to humans or to ecosystems. Yet many problems remain and new ones have developed, such as global climate change, the impact of loss of wetlands, the recognition of subtle biological effects of pollutants such as endocrine disruption, and the need for international harmonization of risk assessment and management practices in a global economy.

EPA's activities often have been controversial. Its first administrator, William Ruckelshaus, was brought back in 1983 after President Ronald Reagan's initial choice became a political liability and a senior EPA official was jailed for perjury. An area of tension within EPA is its role in public health, including its relations with federal public health agencies that also have roles in environmental protection. This tension is mirrored within the many states that have environmental protection agencies separate from their health departments. The number of USPHS commissioned officers with EPA has dropped precipitously in both absolute and relative amounts. Recent administrators have attempted to move EPA from legalistic command-and-control management strategies toward more of a partnership with stakeholders, including other federal and state agencies.

Particularly challenging for the future EPA is the increasing evidence of the linkage between ecosystem and human health. Relatively low levels of fine acidic particulates are the cause both of barren lakes through acid rain and increased mortality and morbidity in humans; endocrine disruptors affect reproductive endpoints in amphibians and in humans; and alterations in ecosystems caused by global climate changes alter human disease vectors. Another major challenge will be to apply legal definitions related to protection of susceptible populations to new information about more subtle susceptibility factors obtained through the unraveling of the human genome.

(SEE ALSO: Acid Rain; Ambient Air Quality [Air Pollution]; Ambient Water Quality; Clean Air Act; Clean Water Act; Climate Change and Human Health; Ecosystems; Endocrine Disruptors; Hazardous Waste; Risk Assessment, Risk Management; Toxic Substances Control Act; United States Public Health Service [USPHS])

Bibliography

Environmental Protection Agency. About the EPA. Available at http://www.epa.gov.

Goldstein, B. D. (1988). "EPA as a Public Health Agency." Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 8:328–334.

— BERNARD D. GOLDSTEIN

For years the American people believed their country offered unlimited reSources and were therefore careless in their treatment of the environment. Industrial smokestacks polluted the air. Town sewerage polluted the waters. Farmers used new pesticides and fertilizers without realizing what some of their harmful effects might be. In 1962 the biologist Rachel Carson published Silent Spring, an exposé of the dangers of toxic chemicals to the environment. Federal investigations supported her conclusions, and Congress enacted legislation mandating changes to ensure clean air and water.

In 1970 Congress established the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as an independent regulatory agency to set standards against pollution. In 1980 Congress also authorized a “superfund” to pay for the cleanup of hazardous and toxic wastes. This fund, supported primarily through the collection of taxes, was also to be used in response to chemical accidents. The fund allocated billions of dollars to maintain a clean and safe environment.

The President appoints the head of the EPA, with the confirmation of Congress. During Ronald Reagan's administration, EPA administrator Anne Gorsuch came under criticism for not enforcing the laws as Congress had intended. A conservative, Gorsuch believed that federal environmental mandates were too expensive for businesses compliance and that the government had grown too intrusive in business and private land management. Her stand was unpopular, however, and she was forced to resign under fire. President Bill Clinton later elevated the position to cabinet status by executive order, extending a seat in the cabinet to EPA administrator Carol M. Browner.

Following a decade of growing concern about pollution, and less than two months after the first Earth Day celebration in 1970, President Richard M. Nixon proposed creating the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Nixon presented the EPA proposal to Congress as a reorganization plan to consolidate the Federal Water Quality Administration, the National Air Pollution Control Administration, the Bureau of Solid Waste Management, and the Bureau of Water Hygiene, along with certain functions of the Council on Environmental Quality, the Atomic Energy Commission, and various other agencies into one agency. The primary mission of the new agency was to research the adverse effects of pollution and to establish and enforce standards to protect human health and the environment. Congress approved, and on 2 December 1970, the EPA opened its doors.

Nixon chose thirty-eight-year-old Assistant Attorney General William D. Ruckelshaus as EPA's first administrator. Dubbed Mr. Clean, Ruckelshaus wasted no time explaining that the EPA's primary obligation was the protection of the environment, not the promotion of commerce or agriculture. Under Ruckelshaus, the EPA first attempted to establish and enforce air quality standards. It also went after water polluters. Immediately, EPA threatened Cleveland—whose Cuyahoga River was so polluted that it had recently caught fire—Detroit, and Atlanta with lawsuits if they did not clean up their waterways. The EPA warned business and local governments that it would use the power of the courts to enforce the nation's environmental laws. Initially, however, the agency's authority was limited because few strong federal environmental laws existed.

Major Environmental Legislation

This soon changed. The Clean Air Act of 1970 (CAA), signed into law only a month before the EPA began operations, gave the EPA significant new powers to establish and enforce national air quality standards and to regulate air pollution emitters from smokestacks to automobiles. To take just one of many examples, under the CAA, the EPA began phasing out leaded gasoline to reduce the amount of poisonous lead in the air. The Clean Water Act of 1972 (CWA) did for water what the CAA had done for air—it gave the agency dramatic new authority to establish and enforce national clean water standards. Under these laws, the EPA began an elaborate permitting and monitoring system that propelled the federal government—welcome or not—into almost every industry in America. The EPA promised industry a chance to make good faith efforts to implement the new standards, but warned that federal enforcement actions against violators would be swift and sure.

The EPA also took quick action under other new environmental laws. The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act of 1972 (FIFRA) authorized the agency to regulate a variety of chemicals found in pesticides. Under its authority, the EPA banned the use of DDT, once viewed as a miracle chemical and sprayed in neighborhoods across America to stop the spread of malaria by killing mosquitoes, but later discovered to cause cancer and kill birds. The use of DDT had driven many avian species, including the bald eagle, to the brink of extinction and had inspired Rachel Carson to write Silent Spring (1962), which many credit as the clarion call for the modern environmental movement. In 1974, the passage of the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) supplemented the CWA by granting the EPA power to regulate the quality of public drinking water.

The EPA's regulatory powers, however, did not stop with air, water, and pesticides. In 1976, Congress passed the Resource, Conservation, and Recovery Act (RCRA), which authorized the agency to regulate the production, transportation, storage, and disposal of hazardous wastes. That same year, Congress passed the Toxic Substance Control Act (TSCA), authorizing the EPA to regulate the use of toxic substances. Under TSCA, the EPA, for example, began the phase out of cancer-causing PCB production and use. The leaking of chemical containers discovered at Love Canal, New York, in 1978 drew the nation's attention to the problem of hazardous and toxic wastes already disposed of unsafely in sites across the country. To address this problem, Congress in 1980 enacted the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Recovery Act (CERCLA), which provided a federal Superfund for hazardous waste cleanup and authorized the EPA to identify contaminated sites and go after those responsible for the contamination.

The Epa's Tasks

The Superfund measure was the last major environmental law passed by Congress during the twentieth century. Although Congress passed other important environmental legislation after 1980 and added important amendments to existing laws, CAA, CWA, SDWA, FIFRA, RCRA, TSCA, and CERCLA defined the basic parameters of EPA's regulatory powers. And the agency has since had its hands full. For example, each law required the EPA to identify any substance found in air, water, drinking water, pesticides, buildings, and waste—almost any substance found in the environment—that might be harmful to human health or the environment. The EPA then has had to identify how these substances do harm and at what doses. This has involved scientific investigation of gargantuan proportions, and the EPA is far from finished with the process.

The environmental laws have also required the EPA to determine threshold levels of regulation, another colossal task, and one that has involved more than just science. Often without much guidance from Congress, the agency has had to make difficult decisions about acceptable risks. Is a single death in one million acceptable? One in 100,000? One in 10,000? Despite its mission, politics and reality have dictated that economics play an important part in the EPA's regulatory scheme. Some substances are harmful at any level, but banning them entirely would cause catastrophic economic disaster, and in some cases would require devolutionary, and generally unacceptable, changes in the structure of modern society. The EPA's science, therefore, has always been tempered by economic and political reality.

Expanding Authority

That said, the EPA's regulatory role continued to grow during the 1980s, despite the conservative administrations of Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush. Following a nuclear accident at Three Mile Island in 1979, the EPA began to monitor nuclear waste and fallout (though other agencies have the primary power to regulate nuclear waste). Hazardous waste leaks at Times Beach, Missouri, in 1982 accelerated the EPA's regulation of dioxins. A year later, cleanup action of the Chesapeake Bay prompted the agency to begin regulating pollution from so-called "non-point" sources, primarily urban and agricultural runoff. In 1985, scientists discovered a hole in the earth's ozone layer, and after the signing of the Montreal Protocol two years later, the EPA began regulating the phase out of ozone-depleting chlorofluorocarbons. In 1989, the Exxon Valdez spilled eleven million gallons of crude oil in Alaska's Prince William Sound. The EPA fined the Exxon Corporation $1 billion, the largest criminal environmental damage settlement in history.

During the 1990s, the EPA continued its attempt to fulfill its obligations under existing laws, and responded to the requirements of new laws and to the exigencies of environmental disaster and scientific discovery. The Pollution Prevention Act of 1990 forced the EPA to focus on the prevention—not just the correction—of environmental damage. In 1991, the agency created a voluntary industry partnership for energy efficient lighting and for reducing toxic chemical emissions, and a year later the agency began the Energy Star program to help consumers identify energy efficient products. In 1994, President William Clinton ordered the EPA to make environmental justice part of its mission, meaning that it would have to be certain that its regulations did not have a disparate impact on minority and low-income groups. On an old front, the EPA launched new initiatives, battling secondhand smoke in the name of indoor air pollution and creating a market-based permit trading program to reduce the sulfur dioxide emissions that cause acid rain. By the end of the decade, it faced many new challenges, including a rapidly depleting ozone layer and global warming.

By the year 2000, the EPA had become the federal government's largest regulatory agency. It wielded a budget of nearly $8 billion and employed more than eighteen thousand people. Its ever-growing number of rules had cost the regulated community $180 billion at the twentieth century's end. The EPA's growth earned the agency many enemies in industry and among conservative politicians. It has even clashed with traditionally liberal political interests, like labor unions that fear environmental regulations will cost jobs and minority groups who resent the fact that too often environmental regulation has meant locating polluting industries and hazardous waste sites in low-income, predominantly minority communities, which have little political clout. The EPA has also received almost unending criticism from environmental groups, which believe that it has not done enough.

The Agency's Achievements

Despite its opponents and critics, the EPA has met with much success. In 2000, the air was much cleaner than it was in 1970—lead levels alone had decreased 98 percent—despite the fact that there were more cars on the road and the nation was more industrialized. Because of EPA regulations, in 2002 cars polluted 95 percent less than they did in 1970. As for water, the agency regulated pollution from 43,000 industrial facilities, preventing one billion pounds of toxics from entering the waterways each year. In 1972, one-third of the nation's waters were safe for fishing and swimming; in 2001, two-thirds were. The EPA's regulation of hazardous and toxic chemicals has saved innumerable human lives and has rescued whole species from the brink of extinction. The ban on DDT, for example, led directly to the recovery of the bald eagle, which in 1999 was removed from the endangered species list. By 2000, the EPA had led or coordinated the cleanup of half of the nation's thirteen hundred Superfund sites, and had a panoply of regulations in place to safeguard human health and the environment from hazardous wastes.

Bibliography

Cannon, Jonathan Z. "EPA and Congress (1994–2000): Who's Been Yanking Whose Chain?" Environmental Law Reporter 31 (August 2001): 10942–10956.

Hays, Samuel P. Beauty, Health, and Permanence: Environmental Politics, 1955–1985. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987.

Landy, Marc K., Marc J. Roberts, and Stephen R. Thomas. The Environmental Protection Agency: Asking the Wrong Questions from Nixon to Clinton. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.

Lofton, James. "Environmental Enforcement: The Impact of Cultural Values and Attitudes on Social Regulation." Environmental Law Reporter 31 (August 2001): 10906–10917.

Romine, Melissa. "Politics, the Environment, and Regulatory Reform at the Environmental Protection Agency." Environmental Law 6 (1999): 1.

—Shannon C. Petersen

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was founded for the specific purpose of protecting human health and safeguarding the natural environment. Until the establishment of the EPA in 1970, there were no federal agencies or programs designed to deal with environmental pollution in the United States in a coordinated fashion. The EPA was assigned the unenviable task of reversing pollution that resulted from many years of unregulated environmental practices that preceded the establishment of the EPA.

Even before its inception as an agency within the federal government, it was recognized that no single entity could govern all practices and activities that had significant potential impact on the environment. Thus, the EPA was designed as an interactive agency providing direction, oversight, and assistance to many other agencies and groups whose activities bear directly and indirectly on the quality of the air, water, and land.

The EPA provides advice to the president of the United States on matters of environmental policy, and is charged with the responsibility of establishing and enforcing laws and regulations to control the quality of the environment. The chief officer of the EPA is the administrator who is appointed by the president. EPA employs 18,000 people and operates 17 laboratories across the United States. The country is divided into ten regions, each with its own regional EPA office. The total annual budget for the EPA is nearly $8 billion.

The EPA plays a leadership role in various aspects of environmental science including research, education and environmental evaluation and assessment. EPA works closely with other federal, state and local agencies as well as Native American tribal governments to develop environmental programs and regulations and to enforce existing laws pertaining to air, water, and land quality and purity. There are also a number of voluntary programs administered by the EPA that go beyond laws and regulations to encourage individuals and organizations to prevent pollution and conserve energy.

Research in environmental science is conducted directly by laboratories within the EPA. In addition, EPA serves as a funding source and planning resource for state governments and researchers outside of the agency. Over $1 billion from the overall EPA budget goes to categorical grants to state and local governments. Grants are also made for the purposes of enforcement, response preparedness, information exchange networks, assistance with Native American environmental issues, and counterterrorism.

Cleanup of existing toxic waste facilities remains one of the largest and most difficult tasks for the EPA. The nation's biggest and most technically complex properties affected by toxic waste are prioritized on the National Priorities List to reverse, minimize, or prevent environmental disasters related to toxic waste. These include private and federal properties many of which have been abandoned by their owners. The Superfund was created to fund these complicated and expensive cleanup activities. EPA provides outreach and educational activities for communities surrounding the toxic waste sites to raise awareness of risks, prevention and avoidance strategies, and to promote direct involvement in cleanup activities.

EPA and the Federal Counter-Terrorism program. The EPA supports the federal counter-terrorism program by helping state and local agencies plan for emergencies, training first responders, providing necessary resources in the event of terrorist actions, and coordinating with key federal agencies. Three offices within the EPA participate in the counter-terrorist Program: the Chemical Emergency Preparedness and Prevention Office (CEPPO), the Office of Emergency and Remedial Response (OERR), and the Office of Air and Radiation (OAR).

Following the World Trade Center terrorist attacks in September, 2001, the EPA assumed responsibility for monitoring air and water purity at ground zero, provided decontamination operations for on-site workers, monitored key pollutants at the Staten Island landfill site, and participated in clean up of sidewalks, streets, and buildings in the surrounding area.

Further Reading

Books

Binns, Tristan Boyer. The Environmental Protection Agency. Woburn, MA: Heineman Publishers, 2002.

Electronic

United States Environmental Protection Agency. "EPA's Role and Authority in Counter Terrorism" Chemical Emergency Preparedness and Prevention <http://yosemite.epa.gov/oswer/ceppoweb.nsf/content/ct-epro.htm#epa> (February 15, 2003).

——. "Protecting Human Health, Safeguarding the Natural Environment" Home Page<http://www.epa.gov/> (February 15, 2003).

The purpose of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is to protect and enhance our environment today and for future generations to the fullest extent possible under the laws enacted by Congress. The mission of the agency is to control and abate pollution in the areas of air, water, solid waste, noise, radiation, and toxic substances. The mandate of the EPA is to mount an integrated, coordinated attack on environmental pollution in cooperation with state and local governments.

The Environmental Protection Agency was established in the executive branch as an independent agency pursuant to Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1970, effective December 2, 1970.

The Environmental Protection Agency was created to permit coordinated and effective governmental action on behalf of the environment. The EPA endeavors to abate and control pollution systematically, by proper integration of a variety of research, monitoring, standard setting, and enforcement activities. As a complement to its other activities, the EPA coordinates and supports research and antipollution activities by state and local governments, private and public groups, individuals, and educational institutions. The EPA also reinforces efforts among other federal agencies with respect to the impact of their operations on the environment, and it is specifically charged with publishing its determinations when those hold that a proposal is unsatisfactory from the standpoint of public health or welfare or environmental quality. In all, the EPA is designed to serve as the advocate of the public for a livable environment.

Air, Noise, and Radiation Programs

The air activities of the agency include development of national programs, technical policies, and regulations for air pollution control; development of national standards for air quality; emission standards for new stationary sources and emission standards for hazardous pollutants; technical direction, support, and evaluation of regional air activities; and provision of training in the field of air pollution control. Related activities include study, identification, and regulation of noise sources and control methods; technical assistance to states and agencies having radiation protection programs; and a national surveillance and inspection program for measuring radiation levels in the environment.

Water and Waste Management Programs

The water quality activities of the EPA represent a coordinated effort to restore the waters of the nation. The functions of this program include development of national programs, technical policies, and regulations for water pollution control and water supply; water quality standards and effluent guidelines development; technical direction, support, and evaluation of regional water activities; development of programs for technical assistance and technology transfer; and provision of training in the field of water quality.

Solid Waste Emergency Response Programs

The Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response provides policy, guidance, and direction for the agency's solid waste and emergency response programs. The functions of these programs include development of program policy; development of hazardous waste standards and regulations; enforcement of applicable laws and regulations; guidelines and standards for land disposal of hazardous wastes; analyses on the recovery of useful energy from solid waste; and provision of technical assistance in the development, management, and operation of waste management activities.

Legal and Enforcement Counsel

The Office of the Assistant Administrator for Enforcement has the following functions: (1) provide policy direction to enforcement activities in air, water, toxic substances, hazardous and solid waste management, radiation, and noise control programs; (2) plan and coordinate enforcement conferences, public hearings, and other legal proceedings; and (3) engage in other activities related to enforcement of standards to protect the environment of the nation.

Pesticides and Toxic Substances Programs

The Office of Assistant Administrator for Toxic Substances is responsible for development of national strategies for the control of toxic substances; criteria for assessing chemical substances, standards for test protocols for chemicals, rules and procedures for industry reporting, and regulations for the control of substances deemed to be hazardous to man or the environment; and evaluation and assessment of the impact of new chemicals and chemicals with new uses to determine the hazard and, if needed, develop appropriate restrictions. It also coordinates with the activities of other agencies under the Toxic Substances Control Act (15 U.S.C. 2601 et seq. [1976]) for the assessment and control of toxic substances. Additional activities include control and regulation of pesticides and reduction in their use to ensure human safety and protection of environmental quality; establishment of tolerance levels for pesticides that occur in or on food; monitoring of pesticide residue levels in food, humans, and nontarget fish and wildlife and their environments; and investigation of pesticide accidents.

Research and Development

The Office of the Assistant Administrator for Research and Development is responsible for a national research program in pursuit of technological controls of all forms of pollution. It directly supervises the research activities of the national laboratories of the EPA and gives technical policy direction to those laboratories that support the program responsibilities of the regional offices of the EPA. Close coordination of the various research programs is designed to yield a synthesis of knowledge from the biological, physical, and social sciences that can be interpreted in terms of total human and environmental needs. General functions include management of selected demonstration programs; planning for agency environmental quality monitoring programs, coordination of agency monitoring efforts with those of other federal agencies, the states, and other public bodies; and dissemination of agency research, development, and demonstration results.

See: environmental law.

An agency established by the United States government to coordinate federal programs aimed at combating pollution and protecting the environment.

"EPA" redirects here. For other uses, see EPA (disambiguation).

EPA
Environmental Protection Agency logo
Agency overview
Formed	December 2, 1970
Employees	17,964 (2005)
Annual budget	$7.3 billion (2007)
Agency executive	Lisa P. Jackson, Administrator
Website
www.epa.gov
Footnotes
[1][2]

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA or sometimes USEPA) is an agency of the federal government of the United States charged to protect human health and the environment, by writing and enforcing regulations based on laws passed by Congress. The EPA was proposed by President Richard Nixon and began operation on December 2, 1970, when its establishment was passed by Congress, and signed into law by President Nixon, and has since been chiefly responsible for the environmental policy of the United States.^[3] It is led by its Administrator, who is appointed by the President of the United States. The EPA is not a Cabinet agency, but the Administrator is normally given cabinet rank. Lisa P. Jackson is the current Administrator. The agency has approximately 18,000 full-time employees.^[1]

Contents 1 History 2 EPA offices 3 Related legislation 3.1 Air 3.2 Water 3.3 Land 3.4 Endangered species 3.5 Hazardous waste 4 Programs 4.1 Energy Star 4.2 Pesticide Registration 4.3 Environmental Impact Statement Review 4.4 Safer Detergents Stewardship Initiative 4.5 Fuel economy testing and results 4.6 Air quality and air pollution 4.7 Oil pollution prevention 4.8 WaterSense 4.9 Safe Drinking Water 5 Research vessel 6 Advance Identification 7 Controversies 7.1 Air quality standards review 7.2 Fuel economy 7.3 Global warming 7.4 Greenhouse gas emissions 7.5 Libraries 7.6 Mercury emissions 7.7 9/11 air ratings 7.8 Very fine airborne particulates 7.9 Political pressure 7.10 Environmental justice 8 List of EPA administrators 9 See also 10 References 11 External links

History

On July 9, 1970, President Nixon transmitted Reorganization Plan No. 3 to the United States Congress by executive order, creating the EPA as a single, independent agency from a number of smaller arms of different federal agencies. Prior to the establishment of the EPA, the federal government was not structured to comprehensively regulate the pollutants which harm human health and degrade the environment. The EPA was assigned the task of repairing the damage already done to the natural environment and to establish new criteria to guide Americans in making a cleaner, safer America.

EPA offices

• Office of Administration and Resources
• Office of Air and Radiation
• Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance
• Office of Environmental Information
• Office of Environmental Justice
• Office of the Chief Financial Officer
• Office of General Counsel
• Office of Inspector General
• Office of International Affairs
• Office of Prevention, Pesticides, and Toxic Substances
• Office of Research and Development
• Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response
• Office of Water

Each EPA regional office is responsible within its states for implementing the Agency's programs, except those programs that have been specifically delegated to states.

• Region 1 - responsible within the states of Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont.
• Region 2 - responsible within the states of New Jersey and New York in addition it's also responsible for the US territories of Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands.
• Region 3 - responsible within the states of Delaware, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia, and the District of Columbia.
• Region 4 - responsible within the states of Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Tennessee.
• Region 5 - responsible within the states of Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, and Wisconsin.
• Region 6 - responsible within the states of Arkansas, Louisiana, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas.
• Region 7 - responsible within the states of Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, and Nebraska.
• Region 8 - responsible within the states of Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming.
• Region 9 - responsible within the states of Arizona, California, Hawaii, Nevada, and the territories of Guam and American Samoa.
• Region 10 - responsible within the states of Alaska, Idaho, Oregon, and Washington.

Each regional office also implements programs on Indian Tribal lands, except those programs delegated to Tribal authorities.

Related legislation

The legislation here is general environmental protection legislation, and may also apply to other units of the government, including the Department of the Interior and the Department of Agriculture.

Air

• 1955 - Air Pollution Control Act PL 84-159
• 1963 - Clean Air Act PL 88-206
• 1965 - Motor Vehicle Air Pollution Control Act PL 89-272
• 1966 - Clean Air Act Amendments PL 89-675
• 1967 - Air Quality Act PL 90-148
• 1969 - National Environmental Policy Act PL 91-190
• 1970 - Clean Air Act Extension PL 91-604
• 1976 - Toxic Substances Control Act PL 94-469
• 1977 - Clean Air Act Amendments PL 95-95
• 1990 - Clean Air Act Amendments PL 101-549

Water

• 1948 - Water Pollution Control Act PL 80-845
• 1965 - Water Quality Act PL 89-234
• 1966 - Clean Waters Restoration Act PL 89-753
• 1969 - National Environmental Policy Act PL 91-190
• 1970 - Water Quality Improvement Act PL 91-224
• 1972 - Federal Water Pollution Control Amendments of 1972 PL 92-500
• 1974 - Safe Drinking Water Act PL 93-523
• 1976 - Toxic Substances Control Act PL 94-469
• 1977 - Clean Water Act PL 95-217
• 1987 - Water Quality Act PL 100-4
• 1996 - Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996 PL 104-182

Land

• 1947 - Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act
• 1964 - Wilderness Act PL 88-577
• 1968 - Scenic Rivers Preservation Act PL 90-542
• 1969 - National Environmental Policy Act PL 91-190
• 1970 - Wilderness Act PL 91-504
• 1977 - Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act PL 95-87
• 1978 - Wilderness Act PL 98-625
• 1980 - Alaska Land Protection Act PL 96-487
• 1994 - California Desert Protection Act PL 103-433
• 1996 - Food Quality Protection Act

Endangered species

• 1946 - Coordination Act PL 79-732
• 1966 - Endangered Species Preservation Act PL 89-669
• 1969 - Endangered Species Conservation Act PL 91-135
• 1972 - Marine Mammal Protection Act PL 92-522
• 1973 - Endangered Species Act PL 93-205

Hazardous waste

• 1965 - Solid Waste Disposal Act PL 89-272
• 1969 - National Environmental Policy Act PL 91-190
• 1970 - Resource Recovery Act PL 91-512
• 1976 - Resource Conservation and Recovery Act PL 94-580
• 1980 - Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act ("Superfund") PL 96-510
• 1982 - Nuclear Waste Repository Act PL 97-425
• 1984 - Hazardous and Solid Wastes Amendments Act PL 98-616
• 1986 - Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act PL 99-499
• 2002 - Small Business Liability Relief and Brownfields Revitalization Act ("Brownfields Law") PL 107-118

Programs

Energy Star

Main article: Energy Star

In 1992 the EPA launched the Energy Star program, a voluntary program that fosters energy efficiency.

Pesticide Registration

EPA administers the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) (which is much older than the agency) and registers all pesticides legally sold in the United States.

Environmental Impact Statement Review

EPA is responsible for reviewing projects of other federal agencies' Environmental Impact Statements under the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA).

Safer Detergents Stewardship Initiative

Through the Safer Detergents Stewardship Initiative (SDSI)^[4], EPA's Design for the Environment (DfE) Program recognizes environmental leaders who voluntarily commit to the use of safer surfactants. Safer surfactants are surfactants that break down quickly to non-polluting compounds and help protect aquatic life in both fresh and salt water. Nonylphenol ethoxylates, commonly referred to as NPEs, are an example of a surfactant class that does not meet the definition of a safer surfactant.

The Design for the Environment Program has identified safer alternative surfactants through partnerships with industry and environmental advocates. These safer alternatives are comparable in cost and are readily available. CleanGredients^[5] is a source of safer surfactants.

Fuel economy testing and results

Manufacturers selling automobiles in the USA are required to provide EPA fuel economy test results for their vehicles and the manufacturers are not allowed to provide results from alternate sources. The fuel economy is calculated using the emissions data collected during two of the vehicle's Clean Air Act certification tests by measuring the total volume of carbon captured from the exhaust during the tests.

The current testing system was originally developed in 1972 and used driving cycles designed to simulate driving during rush-hour in Los Angeles during that era. Prior to 1984 the EPA reported the exact fuel economy figures calculated from the test. In 1984, the EPA began adjusting city (aka Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule or UDDS) results downward by 10% and highway (aka HighWay Fuel Economy Test or HWFET) results by 22% to compensate for changes in driving conditions since 1972 and to better correlate the EPA test results with real-world driving. In 1996, the EPA proposed updating the Federal Testing Procedures^[6] to add a new higher speed test (US06) and an air-conditioner on test (SC03) to further improve the correlation of fuel economy and emission estimates with real-world reports. The updated testing methodology was finalized in December, 2006 for implementation with model year 2008 vehicles and set the precedent of a 12 year review cycle for the test procedures.^[7]

As of the early 2000s, most motor vehicle drivers report significantly lower real-world fuel economy than the EPA rating; this problem is most evident in hybrid vehicles. This is mainly because of drastic changes in typical driving habits and conditions which have occurred in the decades since the tests were implemented. For example, the average speed of the 1972 "highway" test is a mere 48 miles per hour (77 km/h), with a top speed of 60 miles per hour (97 km/h). It is expected that when the 2008 test methods are implemented, city estimates for non-hybrid cars will drop by 10-20%, city estimates for hybrid cars will drop by 20-30%, and highway estimates for all cars will drop by 5-15%^[7]. The new methods include factors such as high speeds, aggressive accelerations, air conditioning use and driving in cold temperatures.

In February 2005, the organization launched a program called "Your MPG" that allows drivers to add real-world fuel economy statistics into a database on the EPA's fuel economy website and compare them with others and the original EPA test results.

Air quality and air pollution

The Air Quality Modeling Group (AQMG) is in the EPA's Office of Air and Radiation (OAR) and provides leadership and direction on the full range of air quality models, air pollution dispersion models^[8][9] and other mathematical simulation techniques used in assessing pollution control strategies and the impacts of air pollution sources.

The AQMG serves as the focal point on air pollution modeling techniques for other EPA headquarters staff, EPA regional Offices, and State and local environmental agencies. It coordinates with the EPA's Office of Research and Development (ORD) on the development of new models and techniques, as well as wider issues of atmospheric research. Finally, the AQMG conducts modeling analyses to support the policy and regulatory decisions of the EPA's Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards (OAQPS).

The AQMG is located in Research Triangle Park, North Carolina.

Oil pollution prevention

SPCC - Spill Prevention Containment and Counter Measures. Secondary Containment mandated at oil storage facilities. Oil release containment at oil development sites.

WaterSense

Main article: WaterSense

The WaterSense program is designed to encourage water efficiency through the use of a special label on consumer products. Products include high-efficiency toilets (HETs), bathroom sink faucets (and accessories), and irrigation equipment. WaterSense is a voluntary program, with EPA developing specifications for water-efficient products through a public process and product testing by independent laboratories. The program was launched in 2006.^[10]

Safe Drinking Water

Main article: Safe Drinking Water Act

EPA ensures safe drinking water for the public, by setting standards for more than 160,000 public water systems throughout the United States. EPA oversees states, local governments and water suppliers to enforce the standards, under the Safe Drinking Water Act. The program includes regulation of injection wells in order to protect underground sources of drinking water.

Research vessel

Main article: USNS Bold (T-AGOS-12)

OSV Bold docked at Port Canaveral, FL

On March 3, 2004 the United States Navy transferred USNS Bold, a Stalwart class ocean surveillance ship, to the EPA, now known as OSV Bold. The ship previously used in anti-submarine operations during the Cold War, is equipped with sidescan sonar, underwater video, water and sediment sampling instruments, used in study of ocean and coastline. One of the major missions of Bold is to monitor sites where materials dumped from dredging operations in U.S. ports for ecological impact.^[11]

Advance Identification

Advance Identification, or ADID, is a planning process used by the EPA to identify wetlands and other bodies of water and their respective suitability for the discharge of dredged and fill material. The EPA conducts the process in cooperation with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and local states or Native American Tribes. As of February 1993, 38 ADID projects had been completed and 33 were ongoing.^[12]

Controversies

Air quality standards review

Since its inception the EPA has begun to rely less and less on its scientists and more on nonscience personnel. EPA has recently changed their policies regarding limits for ground-level ozone, particulates, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide and lead. New policies will minimize scientist interaction with the agency and rely more on policy makers who have minimal scientific knowledge. This new policy has been criticized by Democrats.^[13] On March 12, 2008, the Federal government of the United States reported that the air in hundreds of U.S. counties was simply too dirty to breathe, ordering a multibillion-dollar expansion of efforts to clean up smog in cities and towns nationwide.^[14]

Fuel economy

In July 2005, an EPA report showing that auto companies were using loopholes to produce less fuel-efficient cars was delayed. The report was supposed to be released the day before a controversial energy bill was passed and would have provided backup for those opposed to it, but at the last minute the EPA delayed its release.^[15]

The state of California sued the EPA for its refusal to allow California and 16 other states to raise fuel economy standards for new cars.^[16] EPA administrator Stephen L. Johnson claimed that the EPA was working on its own standards, but the move has been widely considered an attempt to shield the auto industry from environmental regulation by setting lower standards at the federal level, which would then preempt state laws.^[17][18][19] California governor Arnold Schwarzenegger, along with governors from 13 other states, stated that the EPA's actions ignored federal law, and that existing California standards (adopted by many states in addition to California) were almost twice as effective as the proposed federal standards.^[20] It was reported that Stephen Johnson in making this decision, ignored his own staff.^[21]

Global warming

In June 2005, a memo revealed that Philip Cooney, former chief of staff for the White House Council on Environmental Quality, and former lobbyist for the American Petroleum Institute, had personally edited documents, summarizing government research on climate change, before their release.^[22] Cooney resigned two days after the memo was published in The New York Times. Cooney said he had been planning to resign for over two years, implying the timing of his resignation was just a coincidence. Specifically, he said he had planned to resign to "spend time with his family."^[23] One week after resigning he took a job at Exxon Mobil in their public affairs department. ^[24]

In December 2007, EPA Administrator Stephen L. Johnson approved a draft of a document that declared that climate change imperiled the public welfare - a decision that would trigger the first national mandatory global-warming regulations. Associate Deputy Administrator Jason Burnett e-mailed the draft to the White House. White House aides - who had long resisted mandatory regulations as a way to address climate change - knew the gist of what Johnson's finding would be, Burnett said. They also knew that once they opened the attachment, it would become a public record, making it controversial and difficult to rescind. So they didn't open it; rather, they called Johnson and asked him to take back the draft. U.S. law clearly stated that the final decision was the EPA administrator's, not President Bush's. Johnson rescinded the draft; in July 2008, he issued a new version which did not state that global warming was danger to public welfare. Burnett resigned in protest.^[25]

Greenhouse gas emissions

The Supreme Court ruled on April 2, 2007 in Massachusetts v. Environmental Protection Agency that the EPA has the authority to regulate the emission of greenhouse gases in automobile emissions, stating that "greenhouse gases fit well within the Clean Air Act capacious definition of air pollutant." The court also stated that the EPA must regulate in this area unless it is able to provide a scientific reason for not doing so.^[26]

Jason K. Burnett, former EPA deputy associate administrator, told the United States Congress that an official from Vice President Dick Cheney's office censored congressional testimony by Julie L. Gerberding, director of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.^[27] Reportedly, the testimony excluded said that "CDC considers climate change a serious public health concern."^[27]

Libraries

In 2004, the Agency began a strategic planning exercise to develop plans for a more virtual approach to library services. The effort was curtailed in July 2005 when the Agency proposed a $2.5 million cut in its 2007 budget for libraries. Based on the proposed 2007 budget, the EPA posted a notice to the Federal Register, September 20, 2006 that EPA Headquarters Library would close its doors to walk-in patrons and visitors on October 1, 2006.^[28] The EPA also closed some of its regional libraries and reduced hours in others,^[29] using the same FY 2007 proposed budget numbers.

On October 1, 2008, the Agency re-opened regional libraries in Chicago, Dallas and Kansas City and the library at its Headquarters in Washington, DC.^[30]

Mercury emissions

In March 2005, nine states (California, New York, New Jersey, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Maine, Connecticut, New Mexico and Vermont) sued the EPA. The EPA's inspector general had determined that the EPA's regulation of mercury emissions did not follow the Clean Air Act, and that the regulations were influenced by top political appointees.^[31][32] The EPA had suppressed a study it commissioned by Harvard University which contradicted its position on mercury controls^[33]. The suit alleges that the EPA's rule allowing exemption from "maximum available control technology" was illegal, and additionally charged that the EPA's system of pollution credit trading allows power plants to forego reducing mercury emissions.^[34] Several states also began to enact their own mercury emission regulations. Illinois' proposed rule would have reduced mercury emissions from power plants by an average of 90% by 2009.^[35]

9/11 air ratings

Main article: EPA 9/11 pollution controversy

A report released by the Office of the Inspector General of the United States Environmental Protection Agency in August 2003 claimed that the White House put pressure on the EPA to delete cautionary information about the air quality in New York City around Ground Zero following the September 11, 2001 attacks.

An Environmental Protection Agency employee checks one of the many air sampling locations set up around the World Trade Center site.

Very fine airborne particulates

Tiny particles, under 2.5 micrometres, are attributed to health and mortality concerns^[36], so some health advocates want the EPA to regulate it. The science may be in its infancy, although many conferences have discussed the trails of this airborne matter in the air. Foreign governments such as Australia and most EU states have addressed this issue.

The EPA first established standards in 1997, and strengthened them in 2006. As with other standards, regulation and enforcement of the PM_2.5 standards is the responsibility of the state governments, through State Implementation Plans.^[37]

Political pressure

In April 2008, the Union of Concerned Scientists said that more than half of the nearly 1,600 EPA staff scientists who responded online to a detailed questionnaire reported they had experienced incidents of political interference in their work. The survey included chemists, toxicologists, engineers, geologists and experts in other fields of science. About 40% of the scientists reported that the interference has been more prevalent in the last five years compared to previous years. The highest number of complaints came from scientists who are involved in determining the risks of cancer by chemicals used in food and other aspects of everyday life. ^[38]

Environmental justice

The EPA has been criticized for its lack of progress towards environmental justice. Administrator Christine Todd Whitman was criticized for her changes to President Bill Clinton's Executive Order 12898 during 2001, removing the requirements for government agencies to take the poor and minority populations into special consideration when making changes to environmental legislation, and therefore defeating the spirit of the Executive Order.^[39] In a March 2004 report, the inspector general of the agency concluded that the EPA "has not developed a clear vision or a comprehensive strategic plan, and has not established values, goals, expectations, and performance measurements" for environmental justice in its daily operations. Another report in September 2006 found the agency still had failed to review the success of its programs, policies and activities towards environmental justice.^[40] Studies have also found that poor and minority populations were underserved by the EPA's Superfund program, and that this equity was worsening.^[39]

List of EPA administrators

1970–1973	William D. Ruckelshaus
1973–1977	Russell E. Train
1977–1981	Douglas M. Costle
1981–1983	Anne M. Gorsuch (Burford)
1983–1985	William D. Ruckelshaus
1985–1989	Lee M. Thomas
1989–1993	William K. Reilly
1993–2001	Carol M. Browner
2001–2003	Christine Todd Whitman
2003–2005	Michael O. Leavitt
2005–2009	Stephen L. Johnson
2009–	Lisa P. Jackson

See also

• Acid mine drainage
• Air pollution
• American Heritage Rivers
• AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors
• Atmospheric dispersion modeling
• BioWatch
• Category:Air dispersion modeling
• Energy law
• Environmentalism
• Environmental Technology Verification Program
• Federal On Scene Coordinator
• FMVSS
• Green Sticker programs
• List of waste management companies
• List of waste management topics
• List of solid waste treatment technologies
• List of Superfund sites in the United States
• Massachusetts v. Environmental Protection Agency
• Office of Criminal Enforcement, Forensics and Training
• Regulatory Flexibility Act
• Renewable energy
• Stormwater
• U.S. Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board
• U.S. Climate Change Science Program
• Wise Use Movement
• Watershed central

References

1. ^ ^{a b} Joseph Kahn and Jim Yardley (August 26, 2007). "As China Roars, Pollution Reaches Deadly Extremes". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/26/world/asia/26china.html. 
   Also see U.S. Census Bureau spreadsheet
2. ^ EPA budget (PDF)
3. ^ "Public Access – When and how was the EPA Created?". U.S. EPA. http://publicaccess.custhelp.com/cgi-bin/publicaccess.cfg/php/enduser/std_adp.php?p_faqid=217&p_created=1087594315&p_sid=F8oPcg6j&p_accessibility=0&p_redirect=&p_lva=&p_sp=cF9zcmNoPSZwX3NvcnRfYnk9JnBfZ3JpZHNvcnQ9JnBfcm93X2NudD0xOTYsMTk2JnBfcHJvZHM9JnBfY2F0cz0mcF9wdj0mcF9jdj0mcF9zZWFyY2hfdHlwZT1hbnN3ZXJzLnNlYXJjaF9ubCZwX3BhZ2U9MQ**&p_li=&p_topview=1. Retrieved 2008-06-14. 
4. ^ EPA SDSI Home Page
5. ^ CleanGredients Home Page
6. ^ "Federal Test Procedure Revisions". 1996-10-22. http://www.epa.gov/OMS/sftp.htm. Retrieved 2009-10-03. 
7. ^ ^{a b} EPA Fuel Economy
8. ^ Turner, D.B. (1994). Workbook of atmospheric dispersion estimates: an introduction to dispersion modeling (2nd ed.). CRC Press. ISBN 1-56670-023-X.  www.crcpress.com
9. ^ Beychok, M.R. (2005). Fundamentals Of Stack Gas Dispersion (4th ed.). author-published. ISBN 0-9644588-0-2.  www.air-dispersion.com
10. ^ EPA. "WaterSense."
11. ^ "About the OSV Bold". EPA. pp. EPA 842-F-05-004. http://www.epa.gov/owow/osvbold/brochure.html. Retrieved 2009-01-17. 
12. ^ EPA > Wetlands > Wetlands Fact Sheet
13. ^ C&E News, December 18, 2006, page 15
14. ^ CNN, March 13, 2008
15. ^ Danny Hakim (July 28, 2005). "E.P.A. Holds Back Report on Car Fuel Efficiency". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/28/business/28fuel.html. 
16. ^ http://blog.wired.com/wiredscience/2007/10/governor-arnie-.html
17. ^ "EPA Denies California Waiver". ABC. February 29, 2008. http://abclocal.go.com/kfsn/story?section=news/state&id=5980352. 
18. ^ http://www.latimes.com/news/local/la-me-epa20dec20,0,1603760.story?coll=la-home-center
19. ^ http://www.dallasnews.com/sharedcontent/dws/dn/opinion/editorials/stories/DN-EPA_30edi.ART.State.Edition1.36bb1ef.html
20. ^ http://gov.ca.gov/press-release/8596/
21. ^ http://www.latimes.com/news/printedition/california/la-me-epa21dec21,0,7077099,full.story?coll=la-headlines-pe-california
22. ^ U.S. Official Edited Warming, Emission Link - Report, Reuters, June 8, 2005
23. ^ White House Official Resigns After Climate Documents Flap, Agence France Presse, June 12, 2005
24. ^ Ex-White House environment official joins Exxon, Reuters, June 15, 2005
25. ^ John Shiffman and John Sullivan (December 7, 2008). "An Eroding Mission at EPA; The Bush administration has weakened the agency charged with safeguarding health and the environment". Philadephia Inquirer. http://www.philly.com/inquirer/front_page/20081207_An_Eroding_Mission_at_EPA.html?viewAll=y. 
26. ^ Linda Greenhouse (April 2, 2007). "Justices Say E.P.A. Has Power to Act on Harmful Gases". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/03/washington/03scotus.html. 
27. ^ ^{a b} Juliet Eilperin (July 9, 2008). "Cheney's Staff Cut Testimony On Warming". Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/07/08/AR2008070801442.html?referrer=delicious. 
28. ^ "Notification of Closure of the EPA Headquarters Library" (pdf), September 20, 2006
29. ^ Letter to Appropriations Committee, Interior and Related Agencies Subcommittee, June 29, 2006 (pdf), from leaders of 16 local EPA unions
30. ^ EPA Newsbrief, October 1, 2008 accessed January 17, 2009
31. ^ Proposed Mercury Rules Bear Industry Mark, Washington Post, January 31, 2004
32. ^ EPA Inspector Finds Mercury Proposal Tainted, Washington Post, February 4, 2005
33. ^ New EPA Mercury Rule Omits Conflicting Data, Washington Post, March 22, 2005
34. ^ States Sue EPA Over Mercury Emissions, LA Times, March 30, 2005
35. ^ Governor Blagojevich and Illinois EPA Propose Aggressive Mercury Controls For Illinois Power Plants, Environmental Progress, Spring 2006, page 12
36. ^ Reasons Why Particulate Matter (PM) Should be Included in EPA Settlements with Electric Utility Companies
37. ^ PM Standards Revision - 2006 | Particulate Matter | Air & Radiation | US EPA
38. ^ "Meddling at EPA? Activists point to survey; Two thirds of 1,586 EPA scientists polled cite interference, UCS reports". Associated Press. April 23, 2008. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/24276709/. 
39. ^ ^{a b} O’Neil, S. G. (2007). Superfund: Evaluating the Impact of Executive Order 12898. Environmental Health Perspectives, Volume 115, Number 7, pgs 1087–1093
40. ^ Bullard, Robert (2007-07-25). "Subcommittee on Superfund and Environmental Health of the Senate Environment and Public Works Committee Regarding Environmental Justice". 

External links

• Environmental Protection Agency
• US EPA Glossary
• EPA's Toxic Release Inventory Map
• Articles and documents from EPA's development 1970-
• The environmental statutes for which EPA has primary responsibility
• www.fueleconomy.gov
• CLUIN Haz Waste Site Cleanup Information by US EPA Technology Innovation Program
• Collected Papers of William Sanjour, a retired EPA employee and whistleblower
• High Court Rules Against White House on Emissions, Breaking Legal News, April 2, 2007
• UDDS.
• EPA Water Regulations
• The ASci Corporation [1]
• Selected Digitized Environmental Protection Agency Records Available in the National Archives' Archival Research Catalog
• Proposed and finalized federal regulations from the United States Environmental Protection Agency
• SENSOR-Pesticides

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