- A glycoprotein hormone that stimulates the production of red blood cells by stem cells in bone marrow. Produced mainly by the kidneys, it is released in response to decreased levels of oxygen in body tissue.
- Epoetin alfa.
[ERYTHROPOIET(IC) + –IN.]
erythropoietin
Dictionary:
e·ryth·ro·poi·e·tin (ĭ-rĭth'rō-poi-ē'tĭn)  |
| 5min Related Video: erythropoietin |
| Oncology Encyclopedia: Erythropoietin |
Key Terms: Anemia, Blood transfusion, Chemotherapy, Food and Drug Administration, Intravenous, Subcutaneous.
Definition
Erythropoietin, which is also referred to by the names Epogen, Procrit, epoetin alfa, and EPO, is a medicine used to treat a low red blood cell count.
Purpose
Erythropoietin is a drug approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to treat low red blood cell counts called anemia. This anemia can be caused by cancer chemotherapy treatment, kidney failure, or a drug used to treat AIDs. Erythropoietin has also been used to increase the red blood cell count in patients who are anemic and scheduled to have surgery. This can decrease the risk of needing blood transfusions.
Description
Erythropoietin is a natural substance made by the kidneys in the body. Sometimes the body cannot make enough erythropoietin to cause red blood cells to be produced. The synthetic drug erythropoietin can be given to act like the natural erythropoietin and increase red blood cells.
Chemotherapy drugs destroy cancer cells, but they also destroy normal cells in the bone marrow. Oxygen, which is needed by the body to make energy, is carried to cells by the red blood cells. The destruction of the red blood cells causes anemia, which can make patients feel tired or dizzy.
Erythropoietin acts to stimulate the bone marrow to make more red blood cells. Patients need an adequate supply of iron in the body for erythropoietin to work best. If a patient's iron is low, the doctor may recommend oral iron tablets to keep the level of iron up. The increase in red blood cell levels should be seen in two to six weeks after beginning therapy in cancer-related anemia patients. When the red blood cell count rises, patients generally feel better.
Recommended Dosage
Erythropoietin is a clear, colorless liquid that must be kept refrigerated. It is administered as an intravenous injection or an injection directly underneath the skin, referred to as a subcutaneous injection. There are several dosing schedules used to treat patients with anemia.
To Treat Cancer-Related Anemia
Erythropoietin is dosed in units per kilogram of body weight, starting at 150 units per kilograms of body weight administered three times per week. This dosage can be increased to 300 units per kilogram of body weight three times per week.
Manufacturers continue to improve the effectiveness of the drug and physicians select dosage amount and frequency based on the drug type, brand, method of administration, and the individual patient's situation. Erythropoietin may be administered at a physician office or at home subcutaneously. Typically, it has been administered once a week, though in 2004, a study revealed that a form of the drug could safely be dosed every two weeks for some cancer patients, making it more convenient.
To Treat Patients With Renal Failure
Erythropoietin starting dose is 50-100 units per kilogram of body weight three times a week. This would be adjusted based on blood work and patient response.
To Treat Aids Patients on the Drug Zidovudine
Erythropoietin starting dose is 100 units per kilogram of body weight three times per week for 8 weeks. This would be adjusted based on blood counts and patient response.
To Treat Patients Prior to Surgery
Erythropoietin starting dose is 300 units per kilogram of body weight per day for 10 days prior to surgery, the day of surgery, and four days after surgery.
An alternate schedule is erythropoietin 600 units per kilogram of body weight administered once weekly beginning three weeks before surgery, then a fourth dose on the day of surgery.
Surgery patients need to take iron replacement with the start of erythropoietin injections.
Precautions
Blood counts will be monitored before receiving erythropoietin and regularly while on the drug erythropoietin. This allows the doctor to determine if patients are candidates for this treatment and if the dose the patient is receiving needs to be increased or decreased.
Blood pressure should also be monitored regularly while on erythropoietin. Patients who have high blood pressure that is not under control should not use erythropoietin.
Patients may be instructed to take oral iron tablets while on erythropoietin to increase the drug's effectiveness.
It is not recommended to give erythropoietin to patients who have cancer, such as leukemias, arising from their bone marrow.
Patients with a known previous allergic reaction to erythropoietin or the drug albumin should tell their doctor.
Patients who may be pregnant or trying to become pregnant should tell their doctor before receiving erythropoietin.
Side Effects
A common side effect due to erythropoietin administration is pain or burning at the site of the injection. This can be decreased by making sure that the erythropoietin is at room temperature before giving the infection. Ice can be placed in the area of injection to numb it before receiving the shot, and the site of injection should be changed with each shot.
Common side effects of patients who receive erythropoietin include diarrhea and swelling.
Less common side effects in cancer patients include fever, nausea and vomiting, fatigue, shortness of breath, and weakness.
Seizures have been reported in patients with kidney failure who are taking erythropoietin.
Erythropoietin can cause an increase in blood pressure, but this is uncommon in cancer patients. Blood pressure should be monitored while on this medicine.
Interactions
In clinical studies erythropoietin did not have any drug interactions.
In addition to taking oral iron replacement, patients should increase their intake of iron in their diet. This would include eating foods such as red meats, green vegetables, and eggs.
Patients should tell their doctors if they have a known allergic reaction to erythropoietin or any other medications or substances, such as foods and preservatives. Before taking any new medications, including non-prescription medications, vitamins, and herbal medications, the patients should notify their doctors.
Resources
Periodicals
"Studies: Aranesp Dosed Semiweekly Is Comparable to Epoetin Alfa Once a Week." Obesity, Fitness & Wellness Week July 10, 2004: 59.
—Nancy J. Beaulieu, RPh., BCOP; Teresa G. Odle
| Food and Fitness: erythropoietin |
EPO
A hormone produced by the kidneys. It stimulates the production of red blood cells. Recently a genetically engineered form of the hormone, called recombinant erythropoietin (rEPO), has been made. It has been used successfully to treat anaemia.
Some athletes take rEPO to boost their red cell content in order to improve their endurance capacity. The beneficial effects of rEPO on athletic performance are unproven, but the possibility of gaining an advantage over competitors is too strong a temptation for some athletes to resist. There is great concern about the possible harmful effects of rEPO. High doses are associated with potentially dangerous increases in blood pressure which may lead to strokes and heart attacks. Some doctors suspect that the increase in the number of deaths among competitive cyclists in Europe may be attributed to rEPO abuse. Erythropoietin and related products are banned by most sports federations. However, detection is not easy because EPO is a naturally occurring substance.
| Sports Science and Medicine: erythropoietin |
EPO; erythrocyte stimulating factor; haemopoietin
A hormone that stimulates the production of red blood cells in bone marrow. Erythropoietin is a blood protein produced primarily in the kidneys by the action of an enzyme released in response to hypoxia. A reduction in tissue oxygen pressure can increase red cell production by as much as 6-9 times. Altitude training, because of exposure to low oxygen partial pressures, increases EPO secretion and boosts the red blood cell count. Erythropoietin has been used by athletes to artificially raise the blood cell count and increase the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood. In addition to giving athletes an unfair advantage, blood boosting with EPO is potentially dangerous. The red blood cell count may be raised to dangerously high levels, increasing the viscosity of the blood and elevating blood pressure: this can lead to heart failure and increase the risk of stroke and thrombosis. Artificially enhancing the uptake, transfer or delivery of oxygen is in the World Anti-Doping Agency's 2005 list of prohibited methods. See also erythrogenin.
| Veterinary Dictionary: erythropoietin |
A glycoprotein hormone secreted mainly by the kidney. A profactor, erythropoietinogen, is first produced in the liver, transferred to the kidney and converted to active erythropoietin in the kidney. The erythropoietin acts on stem cells of the bone marrow to stimulate red blood cell production (erythropoiesis). Called also erythropoietin stimulating factor, erythrogenin.
- recombinant e. — used to treat dogs and cats with nonregenerative anemia of renal disease; animals develop antibodies to the human product.
- e. stimulating factor — see erythropoietin (above).
| Wikipedia: Erythropoietin |
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Erythropoietin
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| Available structures: 1buy, 1cn4, 1eer | ||||||||||||||
| Identifiers | ||||||||||||||
| Symbols | EPO; EP; MGC138142 | |||||||||||||
| External IDs | OMIM: 133170 MGI: 95407 HomoloGene: 624 | |||||||||||||
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| Orthologs | ||||||||||||||
| Human | Mouse | |||||||||||||
| Entrez | 2056 | 13856 | ||||||||||||
| Ensembl | ENSG00000130427 | ENSMUSG00000029711 | ||||||||||||
| Uniprot | P01588 | Q0VED9 | ||||||||||||
| Refseq | NM_000799 (mRNA) NP_000790 (protein) |
NM_007942 (mRNA) NP_031968 (protein) |
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| Location | Chr 7: 100.16 - 100.16 Mb | Chr 5: 137.71 - 137.71 Mb | ||||||||||||
| Pubmed search | [1] | [2] | ||||||||||||
Erythropoietin, or its alternative erythropoetin (pronounced /ɨˌrɪθrɵˈpɔɪ.ɨtɨn/, /ɨˌrɪθrɵˈpɔɪtən/, or /ɨˌriːθrɵ-/) or EPO, is a glycoprotein hormone that controls erythropoiesis, or red blood cell production. It is a cytokine for erythrocyte (red blood cell) precursors in the bone marrow. Also called hematopoietin or hemopoietin, it is produced by the peritubular capillary endothelial cells in the kidney, and is the hormone that regulates red blood cell production. It also has other known biological functions. For example, erythropoietin plays an important role in the brain's response to neuronal injury.[1] EPO is also involved in the wound healing process.[2]
When exogenous EPO is used as a performance-enhancing drug, it is classified as an erythropoiesis-stimulating agent (ESA). Exogenous EPO can often be detected in blood, due to slight difference from the endogenous protein, for example in features of posttranslational modification.
Contents |
History
In 1906, Paul Carnot, a professor of medicine in Paris, and his assistant DeFlandre proposed the idea that hormones regulate the production of red blood cell. After conducting experiments on rabbits subject to bloodletting, Carnot and DeFlandre attributed an increase in red blood cells in rabbit subjects to a hemotopic factor called hemopoietin. Eva Bonsdorff and Eeva Jalavisto continued to study red cell production and later called the hemopoietic substance ‘erythropoietin.’ Further studies investigating the existence of EPO by Reissman, and Erslev demonstrated that a certain substance circulated in the blood is able to stimulate red blood cell production and increase hematocrit. This substance was finally purified and confirmed as erythropoietin, opening doors to therapeutic uses for EPO in diseases like anemia.[3][4]
Haematologist John Adamson and nephrologist Joseph W. Eschbach looked at various forms of renal failure and the role of the natural hormone EPO in the formation of red blood cells. Studying sheep and other animals in the 1970s, the two scientists helped establish that EPO stimulates the production of red cells in bone marrow and could lead to a treatment for anaemia in humans. In 1968, Goldwasser and Kung began work to purify human Epo, and managed to purify 10 ml by 1977, nine years later. The pure Epo allowed the amino acid sequence to be partially identified and the gene to be isolated.[5] Later an NIH-funded researcher at Columbia University discovered a way to synthesize it. Columbia patented the technique and licensed it to Amgen. Controversy has ensued over the fairness of the rewards which Amgen reaped from NIH-funded work, and Goldwasser was never financially rewarded for his work.[6]
In the 1980s, Adamson, Joseph W. Eschbach, Joan C. Egrie, Michael R. Downing and Jeffrey K. Browne conducted a clinical trial at the Northwest Kidney Centers for a synthetic form of the hormone, Epogen produced by Amgen. The trial was successful, and the results were published in the New England Journal of Medicine in January 1987.[7]
In 1985, Lin et al. isolated the human erythropoietin gene from a genomic phage library and were able to characterize it for research and production.<[8] Their research demonstrated that the gene for erythropoietin encoded the production of EPO in mammalian cells that is biologically active in vitro and in vivo. This opened up the door for the industrial production of recombinant erythropoietin (RhEpo) for treating anemia patients.
In 1989, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved the hormone, called Epogen, which remains in use.
More recently, a novel erythropoiesis-stimulating protein (NESP) has been produced.[9] This glycoprotein demonstrates anti-anemic capabilities and has a longer terminal half-life than erythropoietin. NESP offers chronic renal failure patients a lower dose of hormones to maintain normal hemoglobin levels.
Regulation
EPO is produced mainly by peritubular fibroblasts of the renal cortex. It is synthesized by renal peritubular cells in adults, with a small amount being produced in the liver.[10][11] Regulation is believed to rely on a feed-back mechanism measuring blood oxygenation. Constitutively synthesized transcription factors for EPO, known as hypoxia-inducible factors (HIFs), are hydroxylated and proteosomally digested in the presence of oxygen.[5] It binds to the erythropoietin receptor (EpoR) on the red cell surface and activates a JAK2 cascade. This receptor is also found in a large number of tissues such as bone marrow cells and peripheral/central nerve cells, many of which activate intracellular biological pathways upon binding with Epo.
Primary role in red cell blood line
Erythropoietin has its primary effect on red blood cells by promoting red blood cell survival through protecting these cells from apoptosis. It also cooperates with various growth factors involved in the development of precursor red cells. Specifically, the colony forming unit-erythroid (CFU-E) is completely dependent on erythropoietin. The burst forming unit-erythroid (BFU-E) is also responsive to erythropoietin, but to a lesser degree. It has a range of actions including vasoconstriction-dependent hypertension, stimulating angiogenesis, and inducing proliferation of smooth muscle fibers.
Uses
Erythropoietin is available as a therapeutic agent produced by recombinant DNA technology in mammalian cell culture. It is used in treating anaemia resulting from chronic kidney disease and myelodysplasia, from the treatment of cancer (chemotherapy and radiation), and from other critical illnesses (heart failure).
Available forms as biomedicine
- Epogen which is made by Amgen
- Betapoietin which is made by CinnaGen and Zahravi
Anemia due to chronic kidney disease
In patients that require dialysis (have stage 5 chronic kidney disease(CKD)), iron should be given with erythropoietin.[12] Dialysis patients in the US are most often given Epogen; outside of the US other brands of epoetin may be used.
Outside of people on dialysis, erythropoietin is used most commonly to treat anaemia in people with chronic kidney disease that are not on dialysis (those in stage 3 or 4 CKD and those living with a kidney transplant). There are two types of erythropoietin (and three brands) for people with anaemia due to chronic kidney disease (not on dialysis):
- Epoetin (Procrit (also known as Eprex), NeoRecormon)
- Darbepoetin (Aranesp).
- Methoxy Polyethylene Glycol-Epoetin Beta (MIRCERA)
- Brands available in the USA include: Epoetin (Procrit and Epogen).
Anemia due to treatment for cancer
 |
This section requires expansion. |
In March 2008, a panel of advisers for the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) supported keeping ESAs from Amgen and Johnson & Johnson on the market for use in cancer patients. The FDA has focused its concern on study results showing an increased risk of death and tumor growth in chemo patients taking the anti-anaemia drugs. According to the FDA, increases have been seen in various types of cancer, including breast, lymphoid, cervical, head and neck, and the "non-small-cell" type of lung cancer.[13]
Anemia in critically ill patients
There are two types of erythropoietin (and several brands) for people with anaemia, due to critical illness. These are:
- Epoetin (Procrit (also known as Eprex) or NeoRecormon)[14]
- Darbepoetin (Aranesp)[15]
- Epoetin delta (Dynepo)
- PDpoetin (an erythropoietin produced in Iran by Pooyesh Darou pharmaceuticals)
- Methoxy polyethylene glycol-epoetin beta (Mircera) by Roche
In a recent randomized controlled trial,[16] erythropoietin was shown to not change the number of blood transfusions required by critically ill patients. A surprising finding in this study is that a small mortality benefit in patients receiving erythropoietin. This result was statistically significant after 29 days but not at 140 days. This mortality difference was most marked in patients admitted to the ICU for trauma. The authors speculate several hypotheses of potential etiologies for reduced mortality, but, given the known increase in thrombosis and increase benefit in trauma patients as well as marginal nonsignificant benefit (adjusted hazard ratio of 0.9) in surgery patients, one might speculate that some of the benefit might be secondary to the procoagulant effect of erythropoetin. Regardless, this study suggests further research may be necessary to see which critical care patients, if anyone, might benefit from administration of erythropoeitin. Any benefit of erythropoetin must be weighed against the 50% increase in thrombosis, which has been well substantiated by numerous trials.
Blood doping
ESAs have a history of usage as a blood doping agent in endurance sports such as cycling, rowing, distance running, cross country skiing, biathlon, triathlons, and, most recently, billiards.[17]
In 2002, at the Winter Olympic Games in Salt Lake City, Don Catlin, MD, the founder and then-director of the UCLA Olympic Analytical Lab and now head of the Los Angeles-based nonprofit Anti-Doping Research, reported darbepoetin alfa, a form of erythropoietin, for the first time in sports.[18][19]
Since 2002, EPO tests done by U.S. sports authorities have consisted of only a urine or “direct” test. From 2000-2006, EPO tests at the Olympics were conducted on both blood and urine.[18][20][21]
Neurological diseases
Erythropoietin has been shown to be beneficial in certain neurological diseases like schizophrenia[22].
Adverse effects
Erythropoietin is associated with an increased risk of adverse cardiovascular complications in patients with kidney disease if it is used to increase haemoglobin levels above 13.0 g/dl.[23]
Early treatment with erythropoietin correlated with an increase in the risk of Retinopathy of prematurity in premature infants who had anemia of prematurity, raising concern that the angiogenic actions of erythropoietin may exacerbate retinopathy.[24][25] However, since anemia itself increases the risk of retinopathy, the correlation with erythropoietin treatment may simply be incidental and reflect that anemia induced retinopathy.
Safety advisories in anaemic cancer patients
Amgen sent a "dear doctor" letter in January 2007 that highlighted results from a recent anaemia of cancer trial, and warned doctors to consider use in that off-label indication with caution.
Amgen advised the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as to the results of the DAHANCA 10 clinical trial. The DAHANCA 10 data monitoring committee found that 3-year loco-regional control in subjects treated with Aranesp was significantly worse than for those not receiving Aranesp (p=0.01).
In response to these advisories, the FDA released a Public Health Advisory[26] on March 9, 2007, and a clinical alert[27] for doctors on February 16, 2007, about the use of erythropoeisis-stimulating agents (ESAs) such as epogen and darbepoetin. The advisory recommended caution in using these agents in cancer patients receiving chemotherapy or off chemotherapy, and indicated a lack of clinical evidence to support improvements in quality of life or transfusion requirements in these settings.
In addition, on March 9, 2007, drug manufacturers agreed to new black box warnings about the safety of these drugs.
On March 22, 2007, a congressional inquiry into the safety of erythropoeitic growth factors was reported in the news media. Manufacturers were asked to suspend drug rebate programs for physicians and to also suspend marketing the drugs to patients.
Several recent publications and FDA communications have increased the level of concern related to adverse effects of ESA therapy in selected groups. In a revised Black Box Warning FDA notes significant risks associated with use. ESAs should only be used in patients with cancer when treating anemia specifically caused by chemotherapy and not for other causes of anemia. Further, it states that ESAs should be discontinued once the patient's chemotherapy course has been completed.[28][29][30][31]
See also
- Don Catlin
- Erythropoiesis
- Amgen, producer of artificial EPO (Brand Names: Epogen and Aranesp)
- Dynepo, trademark name for an erythropoiesis stimulating protein, by TKT
- Blood doping, transfusions and EPO use as doping methods; testing and enforcement
- Jehovah's Witnesses and blood transfusions
- The German company AplaGen Biopharmaceuticals[3] has developed a new EPO-mimetic peptide, HemoMer. The active compound is bound to a polysaccharide-based polymeric carrier (Hydroxyethylstarch). Half-Life is increased by increase of molecular weight above the filtration threshold of the kidney, comparable to PEGylation. The so-called supravalence concept has significant advantages to PEGylation, because Half-Life and efficacy are improved simultaneously but not of the cost of the each other. The drug is completely biodegradable and can thus be eliminated even by dialysis patients. At the moment the drug is still preclinical.[32]
Additional images
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References
- ^ Siren AL et al. (2001). "Erythropoietin prevents neuronal apoptosis after cerebral ischemia and metabolic stress". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98: 4044–4049. doi:. PMID 11259643.
- ^ Haroon ZA, Amin K, Jiang X, Arcasoy MO (September 2003). "A novel role for erythropoietin during fibrin-induced wound-healing response". Am. J. Pathol. 163 (3): 993–1000. PMID 12937140. PMC: 1868246. http://ajp.amjpathol.org/cgi/content/abstract/163/3/993.
- ^ Jelkmann W (March 2007). "Erythropoietin after a century of research: younger than ever". European journal of haematology 78 (3): 183–205. doi:. PMID 17253966.
- ^ Ahmet Höke (2005). Erythropoietin and the Nervous System. Berlin: Springer. ISBN 0-387-30010-4. OCLC 64571745. http://books.google.com.au/books?id=A76u7g0QnskC.
- ^ a b Jelkmann W (March 2007). "Erythropoietin after a century of research: younger than ever". Eur. J. Haematol. 78 (3): 183–205. doi:. PMID 17253966.
- ^ Angell, Marcia (2005). The Truth About the Drug Companies : How They Deceive Us and What to Do About It. New York: Random House Trade Paperbacks. pp. page 60. ISBN 0-375-76094-6.
- ^ Eschbach JW, Egrie JC, Downing MR, Browne JK, Adamson JW (January 1987). "Correction of the anemia of end-stage renal disease with recombinant human erythropoietin. Results of a combined phase I and II clinical trial". N. Engl. J. Med. 316 (2): 73–8. PMID 3537801.
- ^ Lin FK, Suggs S, Lin CH, Browne JK, Smalling R, Egrie JC, Chen KK, Fox GM, Martin F, Stabinsky Z (November 1985). "Cloning and expression of the human erythropoietin gene". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 82 (22): 7580–4. doi:. PMID 3865178. PMC: 391376. http://www.pnas.org/content/82/22/7580.abstract.
- ^ Macdougall IC (July 2000). "Novel erythropoiesis stimulating protein". Semin. Nephrol. 20 (4): 375–81. PMID 10928340.
- ^ Jacobson LO, Goldwasser E, Fried W, Plzak L (March 1957). "Role of the kidney in erythropoiesis". Nature 179 (4560): 633–4. doi:. PMID 13418752.
- ^ Fisher JW, Koury S, Ducey T, Mendel S (October 1996). "Erythropoietin production by interstitial cells of hypoxic monkey kidneys". British journal of haematology 95 (1): 27–32. doi:. PMID 8857934.
- ^ Macdougall IC, Tucker B, Thompson J, Tomson CR, Baker LR, Raine AE (1996). "A randomized controlled study of iron supplementation in patients treated with erythropoietin". Kidney Int. 50 (5): 1694–9. doi:. PMID 8914038.
- ^ Smith A (2008-03-13). "FDA panel gives surprise OK to Amgen and J&J: FDA panelists support keeping Amgen, J&J drugs on market - Mar. 13, 2008". CNNMoney.com. http://money.cnn.com/2008/03/13/news/companies/amgen/?postversion=2008031317. Retrieved on 2009-03-31.
- ^ "Procrit® (Epoetin alfa)". Ortho Biotech Products. http://www.procrit.com/procrit/. Retrieved on 2009-04-29.
- ^ "Aranesp®(darbepoetin alfa)". Amgen.com. http://www.aranesp.com/. Retrieved on 2009-04-29.
- ^ Corwin HL, Gettinger A, Fabian TC, May A, Pearl RG, Heard S, An R, Bowers PJ, Burton P, Klausner MA, Corwin MJ (September 2007). "Efficacy and safety of epoetin alfa in critically ill patients". The New England Journal of Medicine 357 (10): 965–76. doi:. PMID 17804841.
- ^ "Cueless: Billiards player a real dope - Chicago Tribune". Chicago Tribune/AP Wire. 2008-03-18. http://archives.chicagotribune.com/2008/mar/18/sports/chi-18-doubletakemar18. Retrieved on 2009-03-31.
- ^ a b "Anti-Doping Research". Anti-Doping Research, Inc.. http://www.antidopingresearch.org. Retrieved on 2009-03-31. "Anti-Doping Research is one of the leading performance-enhancing drug research organizations in the world."
- ^ Steeg JL (2007-02-28). "Catlin has made a career out of busting juicers - USATODAY.com". USA TODAY. http://www.usatoday.com/sports/olympics/2007-02-28-catlin-drug-lab_N.htm. Retrieved on 2009-03-31.
- ^ Lasne F, Martin L, Crepin N, de Ceaurriz J (December 2002). "Detection of isoelectric profiles of erythropoietin in urine: differentiation of natural and administered recombinant hormones". Anal. Biochem. 311 (2): 119–26. doi:. PMID 12470670.
- ^ Kohler M, Ayotte C, Desharnais P, Flenker U, Lüdke S, Thevis M, Völker-Schänzer E, Schänzer W (January 2008). "Discrimination of recombinant and endogenous urinary erythropoietin by calculating relative mobility values from SDS gels". Int J Sports Med 29 (1): 1–6. doi:. PMID 18050057.
- ^ Ehrenreich H, Degner D, Meller J, et al. (January 2004). "Erythropoietin: a candidate compound for neuroprotection in schizophrenia" (PDF). Molecular psychiatry 9 (1): 42–54. doi:. PMID 14581931. http://physiologie.univ-lyon1.fr/enseignement/coursLB/Ehrenreich2004.pdf.
- ^ Drüeke TB, Locatelli F, Clyne N, Eckardt KU, Macdougall IC, Tsakiris D, Burger HU, Scherhag A (2006). "Normalization of hemoglobin level in patients with chronic kidney disease and anemia". N. Engl. J. Med. 355 (20): 2071–84. doi:. PMID 17108342.
- ^ Ohlsson A, Aher SM (2006). "Early erythropoietin for preventing red blood cell transfusion in preterm and/or low birth weight infants". Cochrane Database Syst Rev 3: CD004863. doi:. PMID 16856062.
- ^ Aher SM, Ohlsson A (2006). "Early versus late erythropoietin for preventing red blood cell transfusion in preterm and/or low birth weight infants". Cochrane Database Syst Rev 3: CD004865. doi:. PMID 16856063.
- ^ "FDA Public Health Advisory: Erythropoiesis-Stimulating Agents (ESAs): Epoetin alfa (marketed as Procrit, Epogen), Darbepoetin alfa (marketed as Aranesp)". http://www.fda.gov/cder/drug/advisory/RHE2007.htm. Retrieved on 2007-06-05.
- ^ "Information for Healthcare Professionals: Erythropoiesis Stimulating Agents (ESA)". http://www.fda.gov/cder/drug/InfoSheets/HCP/RHE2007HCP.htm. Retrieved on 2007-06-05.
- ^ "Erythropoiesis Stimulating Agents: Aranesp (darbepoetin alfa), Epogen (epoetin alfa), and Procrit (epoetin alfa)". MedWatch - 2007 Safety Information Alerts. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2008-01-03. http://www.fda.gov/medwatch/safety/2007/safety07.htm#ESA2. Retrieved on 2009-04-09.
- ^ "Procrit (Epoetin alfa) for injection". U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2007-08-11. http://www.fda.gov/cder/foi/label/2007/103234s5158lbl.pdf. Retrieved on 2009-04-09.
- ^ "Aranesp (darbepoetin alfa) for Injection". U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2007-11-08. http://www.fda.gov/cder/foi/label/2007/103951s5164lbl.pdf. Retrieved on 2009-04-09.
- ^ "Information on Erythropoiesis Stimulating Agents (ESA) (marketed as Procrit, Epogen, and Aranesp)". U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 2009-01-26. http://www.fda.gov/cder/drug/infopage/RHE/default.htm. Retrieved on 2009-04-09.
- ^ AplaGen Biopharmaceuticals - About AplaGen
Further reading
- Takeuchi M, Kobata A (1992). "Structures and functional roles of the sugar chains of human erythropoietins.". Glycobiology 1 (4): 337–46. doi:. PMID 1820196.
- Semba RD, Juul SE (2002). "Erythropoietin in human milk: physiology and role in infant health.". Journal of human lactation : official journal of International Lactation Consultant Association 18 (3): 252–61. PMID 12192960.
- Ratcliffe PJ (2003). "From erythropoietin to oxygen: hypoxia-inducible factor hydroxylases and the hypoxia signal pathway.". Blood Purif. 20 (5): 445–50. doi:. PMID 12207089.
- Westenfelder C (2003). "Unexpected renal actions of erythropoietin.". Exp. Nephrol. 10 (5-6): 294–8. doi:. PMID 12381912.
- Becerra SP, Amaral J (2002). "Erythropoietin--an endogenous retinal survival factor.". N. Engl. J. Med. 347 (24): 1968–70. doi:. PMID 12477950.
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