essential oil
| Dictionary: essential oil |
n.
A volatile oil, usually having the characteristic odor or flavor of the plant from which it is obtained, used to make perfumes and flavorings.
| Britannica Concise Encyclopedia: essential oil |
For more information on essential oil, visit Britannica.com.
| Sci-Tech Encyclopedia: Essential oils |
Volatile, fragrant oils obtained from plants. Essential oils are distinguished from those known as fixed oils, which are mainly triglycerides of fatty acids. Essential oils have been obtained from over 3000 plants and are designated and defined by the plant species and sometimes the geographical location. The sources of these oils are diverse, including flower petals (for example, rose and jasmine), spices (cinnamon and ginger), pine oil and turpentine, and citrus fruit peels. Compounds present in the juice that may contribute to the distinctive flavor of a fruit or berry are not, strictly speaking, components of the essential oil. Chemically, essential oils are extremely complex mixtures containing compounds of every major functional-group class. The oils are isolated by steam distillation, extraction, or mechanical expression of the plant material; often only certain parts, such as roots, buds, leaves, or flower petals, are used. Essential oils have been produced and used for flavoring, incense, and medicinal purposes for many centuries.
| Food and Nutrition: essential oils |
Volatile, aromatic, or odoriferous oils found in plants and used for flavouring foods. Chemically distinct from the edible oils, since they are not glycerol esters. See also terpenes.
| Dental Dictionary: essential oil |
n
A volatile, nonfatty liquid of vegetable origin having a distinct aroma and flavor, often O pleasant. Also called volatile oil.
| Alternative Medicine Encyclopedia: Essential Oils |
Description
Essential oils are the fragrant oils that are present in many plants. Hundreds of plants yield essential oils that are used as perfumes, food flavorings, medicines, and as fragrant and antiseptic additives in many common products.
Essential oils have been used for thousands of years. The ancient civilizations of Mesopotamia, more than 5,000 years ago, had machines for obtaining essential oils from plants. Essential oils were the primary source of perfumes for the ancient civilizations of Egypt, India, Greece, and Rome. Essential oils have been found in 3,000-year-old tombs in the Pyramids, and early Greek physicians, including Hippocrates, mentioned aromatic plant essences and oil massages for their healing and mood-enhancing qualities. The Romans associated essential oils and their fine aromas with wealth and success. Ayurvedic medicine, the world's oldest healing system, has long recommended essential oil massage as a health treatment for many conditions.
In modern times, essential oils are used in the manufacture of high quality perfumes, as additives in many common products, and in the healing practice of aromatherapy. Aromatherapy was begun in the 1920s by a French chemist named Réné-Maurice Gattefosse, who became convinced of the healing powers of essential oils when he used lavender oil to effectively heal a severe burn on his body. Gattefosse also discovered that essential oils could be absorbed into the bloodstream when applied to the skin, and had medicinal effects inside the body. Another Frenchman, Dr. Jean Valnet, used essential oils during World War II to treat soldiers, and wrote a major book on the topic in 1964 called Aromatherapie. European biochemist, Marguerite Maury, performed thorough studies of how essential oils influence the body and emotions, and popularized essential oil massages as therapy. In the 1990s, aromatherapy was one of the fastest-growing alternative health treatments.
Essential oils are produced using several techniques. Distillation uses water and steam to remove the oils from dried or fresh plants, and the expression method uses machines to squeeze the oil out of plants. Other techniques may use alcohol or solvents to remove essential oils from plant materials.
Essential oils are extremely concentrated. It would take roughly thirty cups of herbal tea to equal the concentration of plant essence in one drop of essential oil. Some essential oils made from rose plants require 4,000 pounds of rose petals to make one pound of essential oil, and are thus very expensive. Lavender is one of the easiest essential oils to produce, because it only takes one hundred pounds of plant material to produce one pound of essential oil. Essential oils are generally very complex chemically, containing many different substances and compounds. Some experts have theorized that essential oils are the lifeblood of a plant, and contain compounds that the plant uses to fight infections and drive away germs and parasites. Scientific research has isolated hundreds of chemicals in essential oils, and has shown many essential oils to have anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, and antiparasitic properties. Some essential oils contain more than 200 identified chemical substances.
Although there are hundreds of essential oils that are used regularly in healing treatments and perfumes, some of the more commonly used essential oils are lavender, chamomile, peppermint, tea tree oil, eucalyptus, geranium, jasmine, rose, lemon, orange, rosemary, frankincense, and sandalwood.
General Use
Essential oils are used in several healing systems, including aromatherapy, Ayurvedic medicine, and massage therapy. Essential oils are used for skin and scalp conditions including acne, athlete's foot, burns, cuts, dandruff, eczema, insect bites, parasites, sunburn, warts, and wrinkles. They are recommended for muscle, joint, and circulation problems such as arthritis, high blood pressure, cellulite, aches and pains, and varicose veins. For respiratory problems and infections, various essential oils are prescribed for allergies, asthma, earache, sinus infections, congestion, and colds and flu. Essential oils are also used to improve digestion, promote hormonal balance, and tone the nervous system in conditions including anxiety, depression, sexual dysfunction, and exhaustion.
Essential oils can be used as quick and effective mood enhancers, for increasing energy and alertness or reducing stress and promoting relaxation. Essential oils can be used as perfumes and lotions, and can be used as incense to improve the atmosphere in houses and offices.
In 2002, several reports were made on the benefits of tea tree oil in fighting infections. Although still preliminary, these reports will help pave the way to greater acceptance of essential oils in the mainstream medical community. In the case of tea tree oil, one small study showed its effectiveness in fighting orthopedic (bone, joint, and soft tissue) infections. Another recent study showed promising results for tea tree oil gel in topical treatment of recurrent herpes labialis.
Preparations
Essential oils work by entering the body in two ways, through the nose and through the skin. The nose is a powerful sense organ, and the sense of smell is connected directly to the limbic system of the brain, which helps control emotions, memory, and several functions in the body. Research has shown that aromas and the sense of smell influence memory recall, moods, and bodily responses such as heart rate, respiration, hormone levels, and stress reactions. Essential oils with their potent aromas can be used to enhance moods, promote relaxation, and increase energy levels.
Essential oils are also absorbed by the skin, and act medicinally once they are absorbed into the body. For instance, eucalyptus oil, long used in common cough and cold remedies, can be rubbed on the chest to break up congestion and mucus inside the lungs. Some essential oils, such as tea tree oil, lavender, and thyme, have natural antiseptics in them, and can be applied to cuts, burns, and sores to disinfect and promote healing.
Because essential oils are very strong and concentrated, they should be diluted with base oils before rubbing them directly on the body. Base oils are gentle and inexpensive oils, and common ones include almond, jojoba, grapeseed, sunflower, and sesame oil. Mineral oil is not recommended as a base oil. Essential oils should be diluted to make up 1–3% of a base oil solution, which is one to three drops of essential oil per teaspoon of base oil. For larger quantities, 20 to 60 drops can be added per 100 milliliters of base oil. Only a few essential oils can be rubbed directly on the skin without dilution. These are lavender, tea tree oil, eucalyptus, and geranium, although people with sensitive skin should use them with care.
Allergic reactions are possible with essential oils. People with sensitive skin or allergies should perform a simple skin test when using essential oils for the first time. To do a skin test, one drop of essential oil can be added to a teaspoon of base oil, and a small amount of this solution can be rubbed on a sensitive spot on the skin, such as the soft side of the arm or behind the ear. If no irritation occurs after 24 hours, then the essential oil is non-allergenic.
Essential oils can be used in a variety of ways. They can be added to massage oils for therapeutic massages. Essential oil solutions can be used on the skin, scalp and hair as lotions, conditioners, and perfumes. A few drops of essential oils can be added to bath water or used in the sauna. Essential oil diffusers, lamps, and candles are available which use heat and steam to spread (diffuse) the aroma of essential oils in rooms. Essential oils can be added to hot-and-cold compresses for injuries and aches. Some essential oils, like tea tree, fennel, and peppermint oil, can be combined with a mixture of water and apple cider vinegar and used as mouthwash. For colds and congestion in the lungs or sinuses, essential oils can be inhaled by adding a few drops to a pot of boiling water, and covering the head with a towel over the pot and breathing the vapors.
Consumers should search for essential oils made by reputable manufacturers. Essential oils should be certified to be 100% pure, without chemical additives or synthetic fragrances. The highest quality oils are generally obtained from distillation and cold pressing methods.
Precautions
Essential oils should not be taken internally, by mouth, rectum or vagina, unless under medical supervision. Essential oils should be kept away from the eyes. If an essential oil gets into the eyes, they should be rinsed immediately with cold water. Essential oils should be used with care on broken or damaged skin.
Some essential oils have not been thoroughly tested and may be toxic. The oils to be avoided include arnica, bitter almond, calamus, cinnamon, clove, mugwort, sage, wintergreen, and wormwood. Pregnant women should avoid these and basil, fennel, marjoram, myrrh, oregano, star anise, and tarragon. In general, any essential oils that have not been tested or lack adequate information should be avoided.
Some essential oils may cause the skin to become photosensitive, or more sensitive to sunlight and more likely to become sunburned. Essential oils that are photosensitizing include bergamot, orange, lemon, lime, grapefruit, and angelica root. These oils should be avoided before exposure to sunlight and ultraviolet light such as in tanning beds. People with sun-related skin problems should avoid these oils.
Those with health conditions should use care with essential oils. Steam inhalation of essential oils is not recommended for asthma sufferers. The essential oils of rosemary, fennel and sage should be avoided by those with epilepsy.
Pregnant and nursing women should use caution with essential oils, because their skin and bodies are more sensitive and some oils may cause adverse reactions. Essential oils should not be used during the first three months of pregnancy, and after that they should only be used when heavily diluted with base oils. Women with histories of miscarriage should not use essential oils during pregnancy at all. Pregnant women should perform skin tests before using essential oils. Essential oils are not recommended for nursing mothers.
Essential oils should be used with care on children. They are not recommended for children under one year of age, and should be heavily diluted with base oils when used as a skin massage or lotion for children.
Essential oils should be stored out of the reach of children. Clean glass containers are the best storage vessels, and should be dark in color to keep sunlight from damaging the oil. Some essential oils can damage wood, varnish, plastic, and clothing, and should be handled with care.
Side Effects
Most readily available essential oils are safe if used in small doses, and side effects are generally rare. Possible side effects include rashes, itching, and irritation on the skin. Allergic reactions include watery eyes, sneezing, and inflammation. Some essential oils may cause nausea, dizziness, or gastrointestinal discomfort when used in excess or by those with allergic reactions. Some essential oils, particularly those derived from citrus fruit plants, can cause increased sensitivity to sunlight and increased risk of sunburn.
Interactions
Essential oils are not recommended for those taking homeopathic remedies, as essential oils are believed to interfere with their effectiveness. Essential oils are often blended together to enhance their healing effects, and mixtures can be tailored to individual preferences and conditions. Aromatherapists specialize in creating essential oil blends for individuals and health conditions.
Resources
Books
Cooksley, Virginia Gennari. Aromatherapy: A Lifetime Guide to Healing with Essential Oils. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1996.
Lawless, Julia. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Essential Oils. Rockport, Massachusetts: Element, 1995.
Wildwood, Chrissie. The Encyclopedia of Aromatherapy. Rochester, Vermont: Healing Arts Press, 1996.
Periodicals
Walsh, Nancy. "Tea Tree Oil for Infections." Internal Medicine News (July 1, 2002):16–21.
The Aromatic Thymes. 75 Lakeview Parkway, Barrington, Illinois 60010.
Organizations
American Alliance of Aromatherapy. P.O. Box 750428, Petaluma, California 94975.
[Article by: Douglas Dupler; Teresa G. Odle]
| Columbia Encyclopedia: essential oils |
essential oils, volatile oils that occur in plants and in general give to the plants their characteristic odors, flavors, or other such properties. Essential oils are found in various parts of the plant body (in the seeds, flowers, bark, or leaves) and are also concentrated in certain special cells or groups of cells (glands). Because of their properties, they are widely used in perfumes, flavorings, and medicines. Their chemical composition differs: A great many, for example, are principally terpenes, compounds of carbon and hydrogen. Others contain aldehydes, ketones, or phenols. Oxygen, sulfur, and nitrogen are present in compounds in others. In general, they are complex mixtures. They are obtained from the plant in various ways, depending upon the nature of the part in which they occur-by compression, by distillation with steam, by dissolving the oils out (extraction) or absorbing them, and by pressure and maceration. Among the plants notable for their essential oils are members of the following plant families: carrot (e.g., anise, dill, angelica), ginger (cardamom), heath (wintergreen), laurel (cinnamon and camphor), mint (pennyroyal, peppermint, spearmint, thyme), myrtle (clove and eucalyptus), olive (jasmine and lilac), orchid (vanilla), pulse (acacia and sweet pea), rose (attar of roses and almond), and rue (lemon and other citrus plants).
| Wikipedia: Essential oil |
|
An essential oil is a concentrated, hydrophobic liquid containing volatile aroma compounds from plants. Essential oils are also known as volatile or ethereal oils, or simply as the "oil of" the plant from which they were extracted, such as oil of clove. An oil is "essential" in the sense that it carries a distinctive scent, or essence, of the plant. Essential oils do not as a group need to have any specific chemical properties in common, beyond conveying characteristic fragrances. They are not to be confused with essential fatty acids.
Essential oils are generally extracted by distillation. Other processes include expression, or solvent extraction. They are used in perfumes, cosmetics, soap and other products, for flavoring food and drink, and for scenting incense and household cleaning products.
Various essential oils have been used medicinally at different periods in history. Medical application proposed by those who sell medicinal oils range from skin treatments to remedies for cancer, and are often based on historical use of these oils for these purposes. Such claims are now subject to regulation in most countries, and have grown more vague to stay within these regulations.
Interest in essential oils has revived in recent decades with the popularity of aromatherapy, a branch of alternative medicine which claims that the specific aromas carried by essential oils have curative effects. Oils are volatilized or diluted in a carrier oil and used in massage, diffused in the air by a nebulizer or by heating over a candle flame, or burned as incense, for example.
Production
Main article: Extraction (fragrance)
Distillation
See also: Distillation
Today, most common essential oils, such as lavender, peppermint, and eucalyptus, are distilled. Raw plant material, consisting of the flowers, leaves, wood, bark, roots, seeds, or peel, is put into an alembic (distillation apparatus) over water. As the water is heated the steam passes through the plant material, vaporizing the volatile compounds. The vapors flow through a coil where they condense back to liquid, which is then collected in the receiving vessel.
Most oils are distilled in a single process. One exception is Ylang-ylang (Cananga odorata), which takes 22 hours to complete through a fractional distillation.
The recondensed water is referred to as a hydrosol, hydrolat, herbal distillate or plant water essence, which may be sold as another fragrant product. Popular hydrosols include rose water, lavender water, lemon balm, clary sage and orange blossom water. The use of herbal distillates in cosmetics is increasing. Some plant hydrosols have unpleasant smells and are therefore not sold.
Expression
Most citrus peel oils are expressed mechanically, or cold-pressed. Due to the relatively large quantities of oil in citrus peel and low cost to grow and harvest the raw materials, citrus-fruit oils are cheaper than most other essential oils. Lemon or sweet orange oils that are obtained as by-products of the citrus industry are even cheaper.
Prior to the discovery of distillation, all essential oils were extracted by pressing.
Solvent extraction
Most flowers contain too little volatile oil to undergo expression and their chemical components are too delicate and easily denatured by the high heat used in steam distillation. Instead, a solvent such as hexane or supercritical carbon dioxide is used to extract the oils. Extracts from hexane and other hydrophobic solvent are called concretes, which is a mixture of essential oil, waxes, resins, and other lipophilic (oil soluble) plant material.
Although highly fragrant, concretes contain large quantities of non-fragrant waxes and resins. As such another solvent, often ethyl alcohol, which only dissolves the fragrant low-molecular weight compounds, is used to extract the fragrant oil from the concrete. The alcohol is removed by a second distillation, leaving behind the absolute.
Supercritical carbon dioxide is used as a solvent in supercritical fluid extraction. This method has many benefits, including avoiding petrochemical residues in the product and the loss of some "top notes" when steam distillation is used. It does not yield an absolute directly. The supercritical carbon dioxide will extract both the waxes and the essential oils that make up the concrete. Subsequent processing with liquid carbon dioxide, achieved in the same extractor by merely lowering the extraction temperature, will separate the waxes from the essential oils. This lower temperature process prevents the decomposition and denaturing of compounds. When the extraction is complete, the pressure is reduced to ambient and the carbon dioxide reverts back to a gas, leaving no residue. An animated presentation describing the process is available for viewing.
Supercritical carbon dioxide is also used for making decaffeinated coffee. However, although it uses the same basic principles it is a different process because of the difference in scale.
Production quantities
Estimates of total production of essential oils are difficult to obtain. One estimate, compiled from data in 1989, 1990 and 1994 from various sources gives the following total production, in tonnes, of essential oils for which more than 1,000 tonnes were produced.[1]
-
Oil Tonnes Sweet orange 12,000 Mentha arvensis 4,800 Peppermint 3,200 Cedarwood 2,600 Lemon 2,300 Eucalyptus globulus 2,070 Litsea cubeba 2,000 Clove (leaf) 2,000 Spearmint 1,300
Use in aromatherapy
Main article: Aromatherapy
Aromatherapy is a form of alternative medicine, in which healing effects are ascribed to the aromatic compounds in essential oils and other plant extracts. Many common essential oils have medicinal properties that have been applied in folk medicine since ancient times and are still widely used today. For example, many essential oils have antiseptic properties.[2] Many are also claimed to have an uplifting effect on the mind. The claims are supported in some studies[3][4] and unconfirmed in others.[5]
Dilution
Essential oils are usually lipophilic (literally: "oil-loving") compounds that usually are not miscible with water. Instead, they can be diluted in solvents like pure ethanol (alcohol), polyethylene glycol, or oils.
Raw materials
Main article: List of essential oils
Essential oils are derived from various sections of plants. Some plants, like the bitter orange, are sources of several types of essential oil.
Rose oil
Main article: Rose oil
The most well-known essential oil is probably rose oil, produced from the petals of Rosa damascena and Rosa centifolia. Steam-distilled rose oil is known as "rose otto" while the solvent extracted product is known as "rose absolute".
Dangers
Because of their concentrated nature, essential oils generally should not be applied directly to the skin in their undiluted or "neat" form. Some can cause severe irritation or provoke an allergic reaction. Instead, essential oils should be blended with a vegetable-based "carrier" oil (a.k.a., a base, or "fixed" oil) before being applied. Common carrier oils include olive, almond, hazelnut and grapeseed. Only neutral oils should be used. A common ratio of essential oil disbursed in a carrier oil is 0.5–3% (most under 10%), depending on its purpose. Some essential oils, including many of the citrus peel oils, are photosensitizers, increasing the skin's vulnerability to sunlight. Industrial users of essential oils should consult the material safety data sheets (MSDS) to determine the hazards and handling requirements of particular oils.
Gynecomastia
Estrogenic and antiandrogenic activity have been reported by in vitro study of tea tree oil and lavender essential oils. Case reports suggest that the oils may be implicated in some cases of gynecomastia, an abnormal breast tissue growth, in prepubescent boys.[6][7]
Pesticide residues
There is some concern about pesticide residues in essential oils, particularly those used therapeutically. For this reason, many practitioners of aromatherapy buy organically produced oils.
Ingestion
While some advocate the ingestion of essential oils for therapeutic purposes, this should never be done except under the supervision of someone licensed to prescribe such treatment. Some common essential oils such as Eucalyptus are toxic internally. Pharmacopoeia standards for medicinal oils should be heeded. Some oils can be toxic to some domestic animals, cats in particular.[8] The internal use of essential oils can pose hazards to pregnant women, as some can be abortifacients in dose 0.5–10 ml.
Flammability
The flash point of each essential oil is different. Many of the common essential oils such as tea tree, lavender, and citrus oils are classed as a Class 3 Flammable Liquid as they have a flash point of 50–60 °C.
Toxicology
LD50 of most essential oils or their main components are 0.5–10 mg/kg (orally or skin test).[citation needed] This compares with, for example, the LD50 of arsenic acid, one of the most common arsenic based poisons which is 6 mg/kg (rabbits).[9]
Standardization of its derived produts
In 2002, ISO published ISO 4720 in which the botanical names of the relevant plants are standardized [10]. The rest of the standards with regards to this topic can be found in the section of ICS 71.100.60 [11]
Further information: British Pharmacopoeia and United States Pharmacopoeia
Industrial resources
Notes and references
- ^ "ISO TC 54 Business Plan — Essential oils" (PDF). http://isotc.iso.org/livelink/livelink/971087/ISO_TC_054__Essential_oils_.pdf. Retrieved 2006-09-14. It is unclear from the source what period of time the quoted figures include.
- ^ Seenivasan Prabuseenivasan, Manickkam Jayakumar, and Savarimuthu Ignacimuthu (November 30, 2006). "In vitro antibacterial activity of some plant essential oils". BMC Complement Altern Med. 6: 39. doi:. PMID 17134518. PMC 1693916. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6882/6/39.
- ^ Komiya M, Takeuchi T, Harada E (September 25, 2006). "Lemon oil vapor causes an anti-stress effect via modulating the 5-HT and DA activities in mice". Behav Brain Res 172 (2): 240–9. doi:. PMID 16780969. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0166-4328(06)00279-8. Retrieved 2006-12-24.
- ^ Hiroko Kuriyama, Satoko Watanabe, Takaaki Nakaya, Ichiro Shigemori, Masakazu Kita, Noriko Yoshida, Daiki Masaki, Toshiaki Tadai, Kotaro Ozasa, Kenji Fukui, and Jiro Imanishi (September 15, 2005). "Ambient odors of orange and lavender reduce anxiety and improve mood in a dental office". Physiol Behav 86 (1-2): 92–5. doi:. PMID 16095639.
- ^ Lehrner J, Marwinski G, Lehr S, Johren P, Deecke L (June 2005). "Immunological and Psychological Benefits of Aromatherapy Massage". Evid Based Complement Alternat Med 2 (2): 179. doi:. PMID 15937558.
- ^ Henley, D. V. (2007). "Prepubertal gynecomastia linked to lavender and tea tree oils". New England Journal of Medicine 356 (5): 479–85. doi:. PMID 17267908.
- ^ "Oils make male breasts develop". BBC News. 2007-02-01. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/6318043.stm. Retrieved 2007-09-09.
- ^ Bischoff K, Guale F (April 1998). "Australian tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) oil poisoning in three purebred cats". J. Vet. Diagn. Invest. 10 (2): 208–10. PMID 9576358. http://www.jvdi.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=9576358.
- ^ Joachimoglu. Biochem. Z. 70, 144 (1915)
- ^ International Organization for Standardization. "ISO 4720:2002 Essential oils — Nomenclature". http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_ics/catalogue_detail_ics.htm?ics1=01&ics2=040&ics3=71&csnumber=30435. Retrieved 23 April 2009.
- ^ International Organization for Standardization. "71.100.60: Essential oils". http://www.iso.org/iso/products/standards/catalogue_ics_browse.htm?ICS1=71&ICS2=100&ICS3=60&. Retrieved 14 June 2009.
- ^ John Wiley & Sons. "Flavour and Fragrance Journal". http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/4029/home. Retrieved 11 July 2009.
- ^ Allured Business Media. "Journal of Essential Oil Research". http://www.jeoronline.com/. Retrieved 11 July 2009.
Additional references
- Kurt Schnaubelt (1999). Advanced Aromatherapy: The Science of Essential Oil Therapy. Healing Arts Press. ISBN 0-89281-743-7.
- Wanda Sellar (2001). The Directory of Essential Oils (Reprint ed.). Essex: The C.W. Daniel Company, Ltd. ISBN 0-85207-346-1.
- Robert Tisserand (1995). Essential Oil Safety: A Guide for Health Care Professionals. Churchill Livingstone. ISBN 0-443-05260-3.
See also
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