Charles Darwin's The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872) is a companion to, and was originally conceived to be part of, his The Descent of Man (1871). Both works are concerned with drawing conclusions from the hypothesis, startling at the time, that man as a species is derived by processes of natural selection from other species, and especially from his near relations, the great apes. Darwin argues that the facial expressions of man, which are now important as social symbols, were originally functionally important — often in ancient and even extinct species. For example, frowning shaded the eyes; drooping of the mouth rejected bitter or poisonous fruit; widening of the eyes improved vision for emergencies, and so on. His studies were meticulous, leading him to consider the development of particular muscles, and identifying reactions in his own children — sometimes even making them cry for experimental purposes, though he was the kindest of men and most deeply attached to his family. In the 20th century it became fashionable to deny any genetic influence on human behaviour and it was claimed that all behaviour patterns, including facial expressions, were purely the result of cultural learning. Darwin's earlier ideas were rejected and in the 1930s psychologist Otto Klineberg's conclusions were summarized by the phrase: 'what is shown on the face is written there by culture'. In the second half of the 20th century this school of thought was discredited and new research demonstrated that Darwin had been correct. The major facial expressions displaying such emotions as fear, disgust, anger, happiness, and sadness are common to all cultures and are found in remote tribal societies that have previously known no contact with the outside world. It is, however, true that each culture slightly modifies its genetically inherited set of expressions, according to local display rules. In one culture, for example, it might have become socially unacceptable to laugh out loud, while in another it was equally unacceptable not to laugh out loud, when amused. The basic expression of a 'happy face' would therefore suffer suppressions or exaggerations as one moved from one location to another. In some cultures a new expression, such as a 'wink' or a 'tongue-in-cheek' would be invented and added to the facial repertoire. In this way, the primary, evolved set of human facial expressions would become modified or expanded by minor cultural influences.
A popular treatment of the subject is found in the writing of Desmond Morris (Manwatching, 1977; Bodywatching, 1985; Body Talk, 1994; and Peoplewatching, 2002) which brings out subtle and sometimes clear-cut regional differences. These are interesting in their own right and provide evidence of racial migrations.
A curious logical point was raised by the philosopher C. D. Broad (in Mind and its Place in Nature, 1925). He points out (p. 325) that we could hardly learn by association to read moods in others from their facial expressions by analogy with our own expressions and moods, because we only see our own faces and expressions in mirrors. He considers the possibility of some kind of telepathic association, or link, from which we know other people's moods from their expressions. An alternative and surely more plausible explanation is that expressions are largely innate (which would be Darwin's view), though, as Desmond Morris and others have shown, they are modified by social interaction.
(Published 1987)
See also gestures.
— Richard L. Gregory
- Bibliography
- Darwin, C. (1998). The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. Ed. P. Ekman (3rd edn.).
- Ekman, P. (1997). Darwin and Facial Expression: A Century of Research in Review.
