fennel

1. A Eurasian plant (Foeniculum vulgare) having pinnate leaves, clusters of small yellow flowers grouped in umbels, and aromatic seeds used as flavoring.
2. The edible seeds or stalks of this plant.

[Middle English fenel, from Old English fenol, from Latin fēnuculum, variant of faeniculum, diminutive of faenum, fēnum, hay.]

For more information on fennel, visit Britannica.com.

Forniculum vulgare, a culinary herb of the parsley family (Apiaceae). It is grown for the dried, ripe fruits or seeds which are used in bread, pickles, liqueurs, and meat sauces and dishes. Although similar in odor to anise, fennel seed can be distinguished by its warm, sweet character. See also Apiales.

The three fennel varieties of commercial importance are vulgare, dulce, and piperitum. The variety vulgare is grown for its seed and the essential oil, obtained by steam distillation and known as bitter fennel oil. The variety dulce (finochio or Florence fennel) is grown for four products; seed and leaf for culinary use, the enlarged leaf base for a vegetable, and for the essential oil from the seeds (sweet fennel oil). The young stems of Italian fennel, variety piperitum, are used for flavoring in salads.

Fennel is native to southern Europe and the Mediterranean region and is presently cultivated as an annual or biennial plant in southern and eastern Europe, India, Argentina, China, and Pakistan. See also Spice and flavoring.

1. Aromatic seeds and feathery leaves of the perennial plant, Foeniculum vulgare, used to flavour a variety of dishes.

2. Foeniculum dulce (or F. vulgare var. azoricum). Annual plant, also called Florence fennel or finnochio; the swollen bases of the leaves have an aniseed flavour, and are eaten raw or cooked; a 60-g portion supplies 10 kcal (40 kJ).

[FEHN-uhl] There are two main types of this aromatic plant, both with pale green, celerylike stems and bright green, feathery foliage. Florence fennel, also called finocchio, is cultivated throughout the Mediterranean and in the United States. It has a broad, bulbous base that's treated like a vegetable. Both the base and stems can be eaten raw in salads or cooked in a variety of methods such as braising, sautéing or in soups. The fragrant, graceful greenery can be used as a garnish or snipped like dill and used for a last-minute flavor enhancer. This type of fennel is often mislabeled "sweet anise," causing those who don't like the flavor of licorice to avoid it. The flavor of fennel, however, is sweeter and more delicate than anise and, when cooked, becomes even lighter and more elusive than in its raw state. Common fennel is the variety from which the oval, greenish-brown fennel seeds come. The seeds are available whole and ground and are used in both sweet and savory foods, as well as to flavor many liqueurs. They should be stored in a cool, dark place for no more than 6 months. Though common fennel is bulbless, its stems and greenery are used in the same ways as those of Florence fennel. Fennel is available from fall through spring. Choose clean, crisp bulbs with no sign of browning. Any attached greenery should be a fresh green color. Refrigerate, tightly wrapped in a plastic bag, up to 5 days. Fennel is rich in vitamin A and contains a fair amount of calcium, phosphorus and potassium. See also herbs; Seasoning Suggestions, page 747.

Description

Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), also known as F. officinale, is a member of the Umbelliferae (Apiaceae) or carrot family, along with dill (Anethum graveolens), caraway (Carum carvi), and anise (Pimpinella anisum). Fennel has a thick, spindle-shaped taproot that produces a pithy, smooth or finely-fluted round stem that may reach to 6 ft (1.8 m) in height. The finely divided leaves, with numerous thread-like segments, grow from a sheath surrounding the stalk at the base of the leaf stem. The delicate, blue-green filiform leaf segments have a pungent scent, somewhat similar to licorice, and an anise-like flavor. This characteristic is due to the presence of the phytochemical anethol, also a primary constituent of anise oil. Fennel's tiny yellow flowers form in large, compound umbells. The blossoms are frequently visited by bees, wasps, and other insects, and fennel leaf is a favorite food of the swallowtail-butterfly.

This perennial native of the Mediterranean is called marathon in Greece, a name derived from the word maraino, meaning to grow thin. Fennel was recommended as an herb for weight reduction, "to make people more lean that are too fat," according to the seventeenth century herbalist and astrologer Nicholas Culpeper. He considered fennel to be an herb of Mercury, under the sign of Virgo. In Chinese and Hindu cultures fennel was ingested to speed the elimination of poisons from the system, particularly after snakebite and scorpion stings. As one of the ancient Saxon people's nine sacred herbs, fennel was credited with the power to cure what were then believed to be the nine causes of disease. Fennel was also valued as a magic herb. In the Middle Ages it was draped over doorways on Midsummer's Eve to protect the household from evil spirits. As an added measure of protection, the tiny seeds were stuffed into keyholes to keep ghosts from entering the room.

Fennel was introduced to North America by Spanish missionaries for cultivation in their medicinal gardens. Fennel escaped cultivation from the mission gardens, and is now known in California as wild anise. English settlers brought the herb with them to the New England colonies where it became part of their kitchen gardens. In Puritan folk medicine fennel was taken as a digestive aid. The herb is still found growing on the sites of these early English settlements. This attractive, aromatic and sun-loving herb thrives on roadsides, embankments, sea cliffs, and in dry, stony fields.

There are several different species and varieties of fennel that may be annual, biennial, or perennial. F. vulgare var. dulce, known as sweet fennel, or finocchio, is cultivated for the fleshy basal stalks. The stalks may be eaten fresh, like celery, or boiled and baked as a vegetable. This delicacy is known in Italy as carosella. Fennel has naturalized in most temperate areas of the world, and is extensively cultivated for medicinal, ornamental, and culinary uses.

General Use

The seeds, leaves, and roots of fennel are safe and edible. The essential oil, extracted from the seeds, is toxic even in small amounts. Fennel has been widely used in culinary and medicinal preparations for centuries. The herb acts as a carminative, and was traditionally employed as a digestive aid and remedy for flatulence. An infusion or decoction of the dried seeds is anti-spasmodic and will ease stomach pains and speed up the digestion of fatty foods. Fennel is a proven remedy for colic in infants, and is safe when administered as a mild infusion of the leaf and seed. It is also used for coughs and colds. Fennel exerts a calming influence on the bronchial tissues. The seeds contain large amounts of the phytochemical alpha-pinene, which acts as an expectorant and helps to loosen phlegm in the lungs. An eye-wash, prepared from a decoction of the crushed seeds, is said to improve eyesight and reduce irritation and eye-strain. Fennel has a long history of use as a galactagogue. The seed, when boiled in barley water, acts to increase the flow of breast milk in nursing mothers. A poultice of the herb may be helpful to relieve swelling of the breasts during lactation. A leaf and seed tea has been used to expel hookworm and kill intestinal bacteria. Fennel has also been used to promote appetite. The entire herb is used in culinary dishes, and the fleshy sheaths surrounding the base of the leaf stems are a staple in Italian cuisine. The foliage, known as fennel weed, is used to flavor eggs, fish, stews, and vegetables. The root is sometimes grated fresh and added to salads. The licorice-flavored seeds are traditionally served after meals in India to cleanse the breath. The flowers produce a yellow tint and the leaves a light brown hue as a natural dye for wool fabrics.

Fennel seed contains volatile oil, most of which is identified as trans-anethole, with a much smaller amount identified as fenchone. Other components of the essential oil include limonene, camphene, and alpha-pinene.

Preparations

Harvest fennel leaf from time to time throughout the growing season. Use the fresh leaf when possible as the herb may lose much of the flavor when dried. The leaves may also be frozen for later use. Harvest the seeds in autumn. Seeds are fully ripe just as the color fades and the seed-bearing umbells turn from yellow-green to a light brown. Cut the brown umbell from the stalk and place it in a paper bag to dry in a warm room. Shake the dried seeds from the umbell and store them in tightly sealed, clearly labelled, dark-glass containers. Harvest the root late in the fall at the same time the stems are harvested as a vegetable. The root is generally less medicinally potent than the seeds.

Seed infusion: Crush 1 tsp–1 tbsp of the dried seed, add to 1 cup of unchlorinated water, fresh milk, or barley water, in a non-metallic pot. Bring to a boil; then steep, covered, for about 10 minutes. A standard dosage of the tea is two to three cups per day.

Root decoction: Add one ounce of the clean, thinlysliced dry root, or 2 oz of thinly-sliced fresh root, to 1 pt of unchlorinated water in a non-metallic pot. Bring to a boil and simmer for about 10 minutes. Strain and cover. A decoction may be refrigerated for up to two days and retain its healing qualities.

Tincture: Combine half a cup of dried fennel seeds with 1 pt of brandy or vodka in a glass container. Seal the container with an airtight lid. Leave to macerate in a darkened place for two weeks. Shake daily. Strain the mixture through a cheesecloth or muslin bag and pour into a dark bottle for storage up to two years. Dosage is 2–4 ml of the tincture two times a day.

Precautions

Pregnant women should not use the herb, seeds, tincture, or essential oil of fennel in medicinal remedies. Small amounts used as a culinary spice are considered safe. In large doses fennel acts as a uterine stimulant. The essential oil of fennel is toxic in doses as small as 5 ml, and may cause skin irritation, vomiting, seizure, and respiratory problems. The volatile oil should not be ingested. The herb and seed oil may cause contact dermatitis in sensitive individuals.

Interactions

None reported.

Resources

Books

Elias, Jason, and Shelagh Ryan Masline. The A to Z Guide to Healing Herbal Remedies. New York: Random House Value Publishing, Inc., 1996.

McIntyre, Anne. The Medicinal Garden. New York: Henry Holt and Company, LLC, 1997.

Ody, Penelope. The Complete Medicinal Herbal. New York: Dorling Kindersley, 1993.

PDR for Herbal Medicines. Montvale, NJ: Medical Economics Company, 1998.

Prevention's 200 Herbal Remedies. Emmaus, PA: Rodale Press, Inc., 1997.

Tierra, Lesley. The Herbs of Life, Health & Healing Using Western & Chinese Techniques. Santa Cruz, CA: The Crossing Press, Inc., 1997.

Tyler, Varro E., Ph.D. Herbs Of Choice, The Therapeutic Use of Phytomedicinals. New York: The Haworth Press, Inc., 1994.

Tyler, Varro E., Ph.D. The Honest Herbal. New York: Pharmaceutical Products Press, 1993.

Weiss, Gaea and Shandor. Growing & Using The Healing Herbs. New York: Wings Books, 1992.

Periodicals

Diana Erney. "Healing Garden: Fennel's Not Just for Cooking." Organic Gardening (September/October 1999): 20.

[Article by: Clare Hanrahan]

A common herb (Foeniculum vulgare) credited in folklore with mysterious and vivifying properties. According to Pliny, serpents eat fennel to shed the skin and thus renew youth and vision. In humans it has been said to improve the eyesight, increase the milk of nursing mothers, and reduce corpulence. In ancient times fennel leaves were used to crown victors in games, and fennel was also used in the rites of Adonis.

Fennel has a powerful anise-like aroma and is used in aromatherapy for its cleansing and toning properties. It may be used to treat bruises, cellulites, flatulence, gum disease, halitosis, mouth sores, nausea, obesity, toxin build-up, water retention.

Safety Precautions: Dermal sensitizer, possibly carcinogenic. Avoid in instances of endometriosis, prostatic hyperplasia and estrogen-dependent cancers. May be narcotic in large quantities. Avoid in epilepsy and if pregnant.

For Giant Fennel (Ferula communis), see Ferula.

For the surname, see Fennell.

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2008)

Fennel
Fennel in flower
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Plantae
(unranked):	Angiosperms
(unranked):	Eudicots
(unranked):	Asterids
Order:	Apiales
Family:	Apiaceae (Umbelliferae)
Genus:	Foeniculum
Species:	F. vulgare
Binomial name
Foeniculum vulgare Mill.

Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), is a plant species in the genus Foeniculum (treated as the sole species in the genus by most botanists). It is a member of the family Apiaceae (formerly the Umbelliferae). It is a hardy, perennial, umbelliferous herb, with yellow flowers and feathery leaves. It is generally considered indigenous to the shores of the Mediterranean, but has become widely naturalised elsewhere (particularly, it seems, areas colonized by the Romans^[1]) and may now be found growing wild in many parts of the world, especially on dry soils near the sea-coast and on river-banks.

It is a highly aromatic and flavorful herb with culinary and medicinal uses, and is one of the primary ingredients of absinthe. Florence fennel or finocchio is a selection with a swollen, bulb-like stem base that is used as a vegetable.

Fennel is used as a food plant by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including the Mouse Moth and the Anise Swallowtail.

Contents 1 Etymology and history 2 Appearance 3 Cultivation and uses 3.1 Culinary uses 3.2 Medicinal uses 3.2.1 Intestinal tract 3.2.2 Eyes 3.2.3 Blood and urine 3.2.4 Breastmilk 3.3 Other uses 4 Production 5 Similar species 6 References 7 External links

Etymology and history

The word fennel developed from the Middle English fenel or fenyl, and is pronounced finocchio in Italian. This came from the Old English fenol or finol, which in turn came from the Latin feniculum or foeniculum, the diminutive of fenum or faenum, meaning "hay". The Latin word for the plant was ferula, which is now used as the genus name of a related plant. As Old English finule it is one of the nine plants invoked in the pagan Anglo-Saxon Nine Herbs Charm, recorded in the 10th century.

In Ancient Greek, fennel was called marathon (μάραθον), and is attested in Linear B tablets as ma-ra-tu-wo. John Chadwick notes that this word is the origin of the place name Marathon (meaning "place of fennel"), site of the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC; however, Chadwick wryly notes that he has "not seen any fennel growing there now".^[2] In Greek mythology, Prometheus used the stalk of a fennel plant to steal fire from the gods. Also, it was from the giant fennel, Ferula communis, that the Bacchanalian wands of the god Dionysus and his followers were said to have come.^[3]

Appearance

Fennel flowerheads

Fennel is a perennial herb. It is erect, glaucous green, and grows to heights of up to 2.5 m, with hollow stems. The leaves grow up to 40 cm long; they are finely dissected, with the ultimate segments filiform (threadlike), about 0.5 mm wide. (Its leaves are similar to those of dill, but thinner.) The flowers are produced in terminal compound umbels 5–15 cm wide, each umbel section having 20–50 tiny yellow flowers on short pedicels. The fruit is a dry seed from 4–10 mm long, half as wide or less, and grooved.^[4]

Cultivation and uses

Fennel, bulb, raw

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 30 kcal   130 kJ
Carbohydrates     7.29 g - Dietary fiber  3.1 g   Fat 0.20 g Protein 1.24 g Thiamine (Vit. B1)  0.01 mg   1% Riboflavin (Vit. B2)  0.032 mg   2% Niacin (Vit. B3)  0.64 mg   4% Pantothenic acid (B5)  0.232 mg  5% Vitamin B6  0.047 mg 4% Folate (Vit. B9)  27 μg  7% Vitamin C  12 mg 20% Calcium  49 mg 5% Iron  0.73 mg 6% Magnesium  17 mg 5%  Phosphorus  50 mg 7% Potassium  414 mg   9% Zinc  0.20 mg 2% Manganese 0.191 mg
Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient database

Fennel is widely cultivated, both in its native range and elsewhere, for its edible, strongly-flavoured leaves and fruits, which are often mistermed "seeds".^[5] Its aniseed flavour comes from anethole, an aromatic compound also found in anise and star anise, and its taste and aroma are similar to theirs, though usually not as strong.^[5]

The Florence fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Azoricum Group; syn. F. vulgare var. azoricum) is a cultivar group with inflated leaf bases which form a bulb-like structure. It is of cultivated origin,^[6] and has a mild anise-like flavour, but is more aromatic and sweeter. Florence fennel plants are smaller than the wild type.^{[citation needed]} Their inflated leaf bases are eaten as a vegetable, both raw and cooked. There are several cultivars of Florence fennel, which is also known by several other names, notably the Italian name finocchio. In North American supermarkets, it is often mislabelled as "anise".^{[citation needed]}

Foeniculum vulgare 'Purpureum', "bronze-leaved" fennel, is widely available in the UK where it is grown as a decorative garden plant.^[7]

Fennel has become naturalised along roadsides, in pastures, and in other open sites in many regions, including northern Europe, the United States, southern Canada and in much of Asia and Australia. It propagates well by seed, and is considered an invasive species and a weed in Australia and the United States^[8] (see Santa Cruz Island).

Florence fennel bulbs

Florence fennel was one of the three main herbs used in the preparation of absinthe, an alcoholic mixture which originated as a medicinal elixir in Switzerland and became, by the late 19th century, a popular alcoholic drink in France and other countries. Fennel itself is known to be a stimulant,^[9] although many modern preparations marketed under the name "absinthe" do not make use of it.^{[citation needed]}

Culinary uses

Fennel, from Koehler's Medicinal-plants (1887)

The bulb, foliage, and seeds of the fennel plant are widely used in many of the culinary traditions of the world. Fennel pollen is the most potent form of fennel, but also the most expensive.^[10] Dried fennel seed is an aromatic, anise-flavoured spice, brown or green in colour when fresh, slowly turning a dull grey as the seed ages. For cooking, green seeds are optimal.^[5] The leaves are delicately flavored and similar in shape to those of dill. The bulb is a crisp, hardy root vegetable and may be sauteed, stewed, braised, grilled, or eaten raw.

Fennel seeds are sometimes confused with those of anise, which are very similar in taste and appearance, though smaller. Fennel is also used as a flavouring in some natural toothpaste.

Fennel features prominently in Mediterranean cuisine, where bulbs and fronds are used, both raw and cooked, in side dishes, salads, pastas, vegetable dishes such as artichoke dishes in Greece, and risottos. Fennel seed is a common ingredient in Italian sausages and meatballs and northern European rye breads.

Many cultures in the Indian subcontinent and the Middle East use fennel seed in their cookery. It is an essential ingredient of the Bengali/Oriya spice mixture panch phoron and in Chinese five-spice powders. It is known as saunf or mauti saunf in Hindi and Urdu ( Devanagiri सौंफ ), sompu in Telugu, badesoppu in Kannada, mouri in Bengali, shombu or peruncheeragam (பெருஞ்சீரகம்) in Tamil and Malayalam language, variyali in Gujarati, badeeshop or badeeshep(Devanagiri बडीशेप) in Marathi and barishap in the Malay language, Razianeh or رازیانه in PersianJintan Manis in Malay. In many parts of Pakistan and India roasted fennel seeds are consumed as an after-meal digestive and breath freshener. Farming communities also chew on fresh sprigs of green fennel seeds.

Many egg, fish, and other dishes employ fresh or dried fennel leaves. Florence fennel is a key ingredient in some Italian and German salads, often tossed with chicory and avocado, or it can be braised and served as a warm side dish. It may be blanched or marinated, or cooked in risotto.

Medicinal uses

Fennel seeds

Fennel contains anethole, which can explain some of its medical effects: it, or its polymers, act as phytoestrogens.^[11]

Intestinal tract

On account of its carminative properties, Fennel is chiefly used medicinally with purgatives to allay their side effects and for this purpose forms one of the ingredients of the well-known compound Liquorice Powder.

Fennel water has properties similar to those of anise and dill water: mixed with sodium bicarbonate and syrup, these waters constitute the domestic 'Gripe Water', used to ease flatulence in infants; it also can be made into a syrup to treat babies with colic or painful teething. Long term ingestion of fennel preparations by babies is a known cause of thelarche.^[12] For adults, fennel seeds or tea can relax the intestines and reduce bloating caused by digestive disorders. Essential oil of fennel has these properties in concentration.

Fennel tea, also employed as a carminative, is made by pouring boiling water on a teaspoonful of bruised fennel seeds.

Eyes

In the Indian subcontinent, Fennel seeds are also eaten raw, sometimes with some sweetener, as it is said to improve eyesight.^{[citation needed]} Ancient romans regarded Fennel as the herb of sight. Root extracts were often used in tonics to clear cloudy eyes. Extracts of fennel seed have been shown in animal studies to have a potential use in the treatment of glaucoma.^[13]

Blood and urine

Some people use fennel as a diuretic,^{[citation needed]} and it may be an effective diuretic and a potential drug for treatment of hypertension.^[14][15]

Breastmilk

There are historical anecdotes that fennel is a galactogogue,^[16] improving the milk supply of a breastfeeding mother. This use, although not supported by direct evidence, is sometimes justified by the fact that fennel is a source of phytoestrogens, which promote growth of breast tissue.^[17] However, normal lactation does not involve growth of breast tissue. There is a single case report of fennel tea ingested by a breastfeeding mother resulting in neurotoxicity for the newborn child.^[18]

Other uses

Syrup prepared from fennel juice was formerly given for chronic coughs. Fennel is also largely used for cattle condiments^{[citation needed]}. It is one of the plants which is said to be disliked by fleas, and powdered fennel has the effect of driving away fleas from kennels and stables.^[19] Plain water drunk after chewing and consuming fennel seeds tastes extremely sweet^{[citation needed]}.

Production

Syrian Arab Republic is the leader in production of anise, badian (star anise), fennel and coriander, followed by India.

Top Ten Anise, Badian, Fennel & Coriander Producers — 11 June 2008
Country	Production (Tonnes)	Footnote
Syria	115000	F
India	110000	F
Mexico	52000	F
People's Republic of China	38000	F
Iran	30000	F
Bulgaria	28100	F
Morocco	23000	F
Egypt	22000	F
Turkey	19641
Tunisia	9800	F
World	496438	A
No symbol = official figure, P = official figure, F = FAO estimate, * = Unofficial/Semi-official/mirror data, C = Calculated figure A = Aggregate (may include official, semi-official or estimates); Source: Food And Agricultural Organization of United Nations: Economic And Social Department: The Statistical Division

Similar species

Many species in the family Apiaceae (formerly Umbelliferae) are superficially similar to fennel, and some, such as poison hemlock (see below) are toxic. It is therefore unwise, and potentially extremely dangerous, to use any part of any of these plants as a herb or vegetable unless it can be positively identified as being edible.

Dill, coriander and caraway are similar-looking herbs but shorter-growing than fennel, reaching only 40–60 cm; dill has thread-like, feathery leaves and yellow flowers; coriander and caraway have white flowers and finely divided leaves (though not as fine as dill or fennel) and are also shorter-lived (being annual or biennial plants).

Cicely, or sweet cicely, is sometimes grown as a herb; like fennel, it contains anethole, and therefore has a similar aroma, but it is lower-growing (to 2m), has large umbels of white flowers, and its leaves are fern-like rather than threadlike.

Giant fennel (Ferula communis) is a large, coarse plant, with a pungent aroma, which grows wild in the Mediterranean region and is only occasionally grown in gardens elsewhere. Other species of the genus Ferula are also commonly called giant fennel, but they are not culinary herbs.

The most dangerous plant which might be confused with fennel is probably hemlock (poison hemlock). Hemlock tends to grow near water or in consistently moist soil, is tall (0.75-2m), has purple blotches on the main stem, and is heavily branched with small umbels of white flowers. A useful test to distinguish between it and fennel is to crush some leaves and smell them. Fennel smells like anise or liquorice, whereas the smell of poison hemlock is often described as mouse-like or musty. But take care: coniine, a toxin contained in poison hemlock, can be absorbed through the skin, so do not do this "smell test" with bare hands (and avoid touching your eyes or mouth) unless you can wash them immediately afterwards.

In the Mountain West of North America, poison hemlock has become well established and invasive, and can be found in remote mountain areas anywhere soils are persistently moist. It is often found growing in the same habitat and side by side with osha and Lomatium species, useful medicinal relatives in the parsley family, though Lomatium species tend to prefer dry rocky soils devoid of organic material.

Lomatium (which closely resembles hemlock, and can be very difficult to distinguish from it) is an important historical food plant of Native Americans known as biscuit root. Most Lomatium species have yellow flowers, like fennel, but some are white flowered and closely resemble poison hemlock. Most Lomatium have finely divided, hairlike leaves; their roots have a delicate rice-like odor, unlike the musty odor of hemlock.

Osha, Ligusticum porteri, has white flowers and finely-divided leaves, similar to poison hemlock but not as fine as fennel or dill. The leaves are intensely fragrant with a "spicy celery" odor, unlike the musty or "mousy" smell of poison hemlock, but care should be taken in checking this characteristic, as the fresh juice (of the roots) is astringent and can cause blistering.

References

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Foeniculum vulgare

1. ^ botanical.com - A Modern Herbal | Fennel
2. ^ John Chadwick, The Mycenaean World (Cambridge: University Press, 1976), p. 120
3. ^ Liddell and Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, s.v.
4. ^ Blamey, M. & Grey-Wilson, C. (1989). Flora of Britain and Northern Europe. ISBN 0-340-40170-2
5. ^ ^{a b c} Katzer's Spice Pages: Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare Mill.)
6. ^ Germplasm Resources Information Network: Foeniculum vulgare
7. ^ RHS Plant Finder 2008–2009, Dorling Kindersley, 2008, p280
8. ^ Common Fennel
9. ^ Database Entry: Fennel - Foeniculum vulgare, Fennel - Foeniculum vulgare, Fennel - Foeniculum vulgare
10. ^ "GlobalChefs "Fennel Pollen"". http://www.globalchefs.com/article/archive/art021fen.htm. Retrieved 2008-12-01. 
11. ^ Fennel and anise as estrogenic agents, J. Ethnopharmacology PMID 6999244
12. ^ Türkyilmaz Z, Karabulut R, Sönmez K, Can Başaklar A (November 2008). "A striking and frequent cause of premature thelarche in children: Foeniculum vulgare". J. Pediatr. Surg. 43 (11): 2109–11. doi:10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2008.07.027. PMID 18970951. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022-3468(08)00650-7. 
13. ^ Agarwal R, Gupta SK, Agrawal SS, Srivastava S, Saxena R (2008). "Oculohypotensive effects of foeniculum vulgare in experimental models of glaucoma". Indian J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 52 (1): 77–83. PMID 18831355. 
14. ^ Wright CI, Van-Buren L, Kroner CI, Koning MM (October 2007). "Herbal medicines as diuretics: a review of the scientific evidence". J Ethnopharmacol 114 (1): 1–31. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2007.07.023. PMID 17804183. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0378-8741(07)00366-2. 
15. ^ El Bardai S, Lyoussi B, Wibo M, Morel N (May 2001). "Pharmacological evidence of hypotensive activity of Marrubium vulgare and Foeniculum vulgare in spontaneously hypertensive rat". Clin. Exp. Hypertens. 23 (4): 329–43. PMID 11349824. 
16. ^ John K. Crellin, Jane Philpott, A. L. Tommie Bass (1989). A Reference Guide to Medicinal Plants: Herbal Medicine Past and Present. Duke University Press. http://books.google.com/books?id=0JaqB07uTx4C.  pages 207-208
17. ^ Anne P. Mark (2000). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Breastfeeding. Alpha Books. ISBN 0028639480. http://books.google.com/books?id=s5RSGLuMnnEC&pg=PA142.  page 142
18. ^ Rosti L, Nardini A, Bettinelli ME, Rosti D (June 1994). "Toxic effects of a herbal tea mixture in two newborns". Acta Paediatr. 83 (6): 683. PMID 7919774. 
19. ^ botanical.com - A Modern Herbal | Fennel

External links

• How to grow Fennel
• Fennel in nutrition, health, cooking

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Dansk (Danish)
n. - fennikel

Nederlands (Dutch)
venkel

Français (French)
n. - fenouil

Deutsch (German)
n. - Fenchel

Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - (φυτολ.) μάραθο

Italiano (Italian)
finocchio

Português (Portuguese)
n. - erva-doce (f)

Русский (Russian)
фенхель

Español (Spanish)
n. - hinojo

Svenska (Swedish)
n. - fänkål

中文（简体）(Chinese (Simplified))
茴香

中文（繁體）(Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 茴香

한국어 (Korean)
n. - (식물) 회향풀

日本語 (Japanese)
n. - ウイキョウ

العربيه (Arabic)
‏(الاسم) الشمرة , نوع من البهار‏

עברית (Hebrew)
n. - ‮שומר (עשב או תבלין)‬

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