A binary compound of fluorine with another element.
[FLUOR(INE) + -IDE.]
fluoride
Dictionary:
fluor·ide (flʊr'īd', flôr'-, flōr'-)  |
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| Food and Nutrition: fluoride |
The ion of the element fluorine. Although it occurs in small amounts in plants and animals, and has effects on the formation of dental enamel and bones, it is not considered to be a dietary essential and no deficiency signs are known.
Drinking water containing about 1 part per million of fluoride protects teeth from decay, and in some areas fluoride is added to drinking water to achieve this level. Naturally, the fluoride content of water ranges between 0.05 and 14 ppm. Effect in preventing caries first observed by a dentist, Frederick Motley, in Colorado Springs, 1916.
Water containing more than about 12 ppm fluoride can lead to chalky white patches on the surface of the teeth, known as mottled enamel. At higher levels there is strong brown mottling of the teeth and inappropriate deposition of fluoride in bones known as fluorosis.
| Dental Dictionary: fluoride(s) |
n
A salt of hydrofluoric acid, commonly sodium or stannous (tin).
| Sports Science and Medicine: fluoride |
A salt of hydrofluoric acid containing the fluoride ion; or any compound containing the element fluorine. Fluorides are found in bones and teeth. It has been added to water to harden teeth and protect them against decay. In the USA, the Recommended Dietary Allowance is 1.5-4.0 mg. Tea and seaweeds are good sources. Excess fluoride intake may increase the risk of osteoporosis.
| Food & Culture Encyclopedia: Fluoride |
Fluoride is an important trace element in human nutrition. Daily exposure to small quantities is widely considered to be vital for maintenance of sound tooth structure. Ingested or systemic fluoride has long been known to offer significant benefit when supplied during tooth formation in childhood. More recently, topical exposure (that is, making fluoride available at the tooth surface) has been shown to provide benefits throughout life, even for older adults.
Sources of Fluoride
Water, rocks, soil, and living tissue all have naturally occurring fluoride as a constituent. Crystalline and carbonate minerals containing fluoride are common throughout the earth's near-surface crust. As water flows through the environment, fluoride and many other ions dissolve from sedimentary rock layers and soil into aquifers, streams, rivers, and oceans. Dissolved ions are essential for humans and all living things. Fluoride ions are absorbed directly from the water we drink.
Fluoride in Bone and Tooth Tissue
Fluoride ions taken systemically can become incorporated within bone and tooth tissue. Although bones and teeth have an organic matrix, it is their inorganic or crystalline hydroxyapatite composition that gives them their strength and hardness. Living human cells use available calcium and other minerals to form strong hydroxyapatite matrices. When fluoride ions are also available to the cells, an additional material called fluorapatite is formed. Integration of a small amount of fluorapatite within a hydroxyapatite matrix may produce a more durable substance than is found with hydroxyapatite alone.
Topical Mechanism
Fluoride ions can also provide a very strong surface or topical effect for teeth when available on a regular basis. One such effect is that topical fluoride inhibits the ability of some bacteria to produce dental plaque by blocking the function of important intracellular bacterial enzymes. Much more significantly, topical fluoride also leads to reduced demineralization and increased remineralization of enamel surfaces.
Bacterial Acid and Chemical Balance
Demineralization of a tooth occurs when bacteria create an acidic or low pH environment at the tooth surface. The acidity dissolves hydroxyapatite, releasing positively charged calcium ions and negatively charged carbonate and phosphate ions into saliva. When normal saliva flow dilutes the acidity, the positive and negative ions recombine and remineralize the surface.
This cycle represents a balance. Diets rich in fermentable carbohydrates such as mono-and disaccharides, which are relatively simply sugars, disrupt the balance. They stimulate some oral bacteria to produce dental plaque and acid. Dental plaque is a substance that attaches to tooth enamel and is colonized by the bacteria that form it. Once such a colony is established, each ingestion of fermentable carbohydrate causes approximately one half-hour of intense acid production by the bacteria. This burst of acid production lowers the pH near the tooth surface, demineralizing large amounts of hydroxyapatite. The balance is disrupted and, as the cycle is repeated, it damages the tooth's surface.
Topical Fluoride and Stronger Enamel
When sufficient amounts of negatively charged fluoride ions are routinely present topically at the tooth surface, a different pattern emerges for this cycle. The balance of demineralization and remineralization actually builds fluoride into the tooth's surface structure. Over long exposure to fluoride in saliva, more and more fluoride is incorporated, and the enamel surface becomes stronger. A much greater increase in acidity is then necessary before a destructive imbalance in the cycle will be initiated. This surface or topical effect is thought to be the primary means by which fluoride prevents dental caries.
Benefits of Community Water Fluoridation
In studies of many communities over several decades, it has become clear that there is great benefit to maintaining proper fluoride levels in the public water supply. A concerted public health effort throughout the decades since the 1950s has led to the maintenance of fluoride at these levels in many public water supplies.
Community water fluoridation is intended to provide fluoride at concentrations ranging from 0.7 to 1.2 ppm. Coincidentally, this is about the same concentration of fluoride that is found in ocean water. Levels are adjusted within this range regionally and throughout the year. This provides lower concentrations of fluoride when people are likely to drink more water and higher concentrations when less water consumption is expected.
Without other significant sources of fluoride during the 1950s and 1960s, community water fluoridation produced reductions of 40 to 50 percent in the number of cavities or dental caries among children. Their teeth had enamel that was more resistant to caries both when it was formed and throughout life.
Other countries have assessed a variety of alternative means for delivering protective levels of fluoride. These have included supplementation with tablets or drops, salt fluoridation, and milk fluoridation. However, in the United States, fluoridation of public water as part of purification treatment remains the most effective and economical means for providing this benefit to communities. Currently about 60 percent of the U.S. population has fluoride maintained at these levels in their drinking water.
In the 1980s, it became clear that the positive effects of water fluoridation were not limited to developing teeth. Studies of people age sixty-five and older showed that it was beneficial even when all of the fluoride exposure took place after tooth eruption. Those who lived in communities with fluoridated water as adults had significantly lower rates of dental caries on exposed tooth root surfaces than comparable older adults without fluoridated water.
Fluoride and Osteoporosis
There has been interest in potential positive effects of fluoride supplementation on increased bone density. When ingested, fluoride is absorbed primarily from the upper gastrointestinal tract and is excreted in urine. Fluoride that is not excreted is deposited in calcified tissues—bones and teeth.
Osteoporosis, loss of bone density, is an increasingly prevalent problem in the U.S. population among both men and women. Unfortunately, research to date does not suggest a useful effect of fluoride on bone strength, even when it is supplemented at concentrations twenty times greater than that found in fluoridated water.
Early Research on Fluoride
It was research on the effects of prolonged intake of excessive amounts of naturally occurring fluoride that led scientists to understand the protection afforded by healthy fluoride levels. In the 1930s, a dentist in Colorado, Dr. Frederick McKay, became curious about a brown surface stain seen on some of his patients' teeth. These teeth often had a rough and porous surface texture, yet they were also far less prone to develop dental caries.
McKay's early observations led to a long series of investigations. It became clear that this problem, a severe form of fluorosis, resulted from very high levels of naturally occurring fluoride in drinking water. McKay's water samples had fluoride concentrations as much as fourteen times greater than that recommended today for community water systems. These investigations led to the discovery that when fluoride was present at the low levels that are now widely used, it offered powerful protection from dental caries without any adverse effects.
Reevaluation of Fluoride Use
By the 1990s, the wide availability of fluoridated water led scientists to reevaluate fluoride use practices. Particular attention was paid to the potential for a diffuse exposure to fluoride throughout the population. Many packaged foods are processed in communities with fluoridated water, becoming sources of small amounts of fluoride to those who consume them. Far more important, however, is the use of toothpaste and other products containing fluoride. It was concluded that community water fluoridation levels remain appropriate, but that greater care must be taken in the use of fluoride toothpaste.
Levels of fluoride in treated drinking water are extremely low when compared to concentrations in common therapeutic products. For example, fluoride concentration in over-the-counter fluoride mouth rinses is generally about 230 parts per million (ppm); toothpastes contain about 1,000 ppm; prescription home-use mouth rinses and home-use gels range from 1,000 to 5,000 ppm; professionally applied fluoride gels contain 10,000 to 12,300 ppm; and professionally applied fluoride varnishes contain about 22,000 ppm.
The additional sources of fluoride, primarily toothpaste, have led to lower rates of dental caries in U.S. communities not provided with fluoridated water. However, even with these lower background rates of dental caries in the population, it is estimated that community water fluoridation alone still provides an additional reduction of 20 to 40 percent in dental caries when comparison is made to caries rates for Americans who do not have fluoridated water but who use fluoride toothpaste.
Fluoride Issues for the Future
During the reevaluation of fluoride in the 1990s, concerns were raised regarding the potential for fluorosis. In contemporary studies of fluorosis in the U.S. population, nearly all observed cases have been classified as "very mild" or "mild." These are categories of "white-spot" discoloration that are usually only apparent to a dentist conducting an intraoral examination. Ingestion of fluoride toothpaste is considered the primary explanation for these white-spot discolorations.
Children are likely to swallow toothpaste while brushing, ingesting an unintended and excessive amount of fluoride. The most effective strategy for avoiding mild fluorosis is to limit children to a pea-sized quantity of toothpaste at each brushing. This quantity is adequate for caries prevention and oral hygiene, but it should not lead to development of fluorosis.
Use of infant formula and some baby foods has also raised a degree of concern. Because of infants' very small body mass, the proper intake of systemic fluoride is lower than that for slightly older children. Some studies have identified varying levels of fluoride in these products, some approaching levels that are associated with increased risk for very mild or mild fluorosis in infants. Physicians and dentists are urged to use caution in prescribing fluoride supplements for infants and very young children living in communities without fluoridated water because they might be consuming these fluoride-containing products.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has set a standard of 4.0 ppm as the maximum allowable fluoride level in drinking water. Within the United States, fluoride levels in drinking water are actually maintained at about one-fourth of this level. However, in some developing countries, particularly in southern Asia and northern Africa, natural fluoride is present at extremely high levels. In India, for example, a study sponsored by the World Health Organization found natural fluoride levels exceeding 1.5 ppm in about 8 percent of samples, with some concentrations as high as 22.0 ppm. In such areas, public health workers actively engage in efforts to reduce fluoride exposure and eliminate fluorosis.
Conclusion
Nearly one hundred organizations with related expertise, including the World Health Organization, the U.S. Public Health Service, the American Medical Association, the American Public Health Association, the American Society for Clinical Nutrition, the American Society for Nutritional Sciences, the International Association for Dental Research, the FDI World Dental Federation, and the American Cancer Society have recognized the importance of daily fluoride intake for dental health. Particularly when supplied through community water fluoridation, ensuring adequate dietary fluoride exposure has been an extremely safe and cost-effective public health measure. Fluoride is a trace element that has extremely important personal and public health benefits for promotion and maintenance of optimal oral health.
Bibliography
American Dental Association. "Statement on Water Fluoridation Efficacy and Safety." Available at http://www.ada.org/prof/prac/issues/statements/fluoride2.html.
American Dental Association. "Fluoride and Fluoridation."Available at http://www.ada.org/public/topics/fluoride/facts-intro.html.
American Dietetic Association. "Position of the American Dietetic Association: The Impact of Fluoride on Health." Journal of the American Dietetic Association 100 (2000): 1208–1213.
Burt, Brian A., and Stephen A. Eklund. Dentistry, Dental Practice, and the Community 5th ed. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders, 1999.
Clarkson, John J., and Jacinta McLoughlin. "Role of Fluoride in Oral Health Promotion." International Dental Journal 50 (2000): 119–128.
Ekstrand, J., and A. Oliveby. "Fluoride in the Oral Environment." Acta Odontologica Scandinavica 57 (1999): 330–333.
Gillcrist, James A., David E. Brumley, and Jennifer U. Blackford. "Community Fluoridation Status and Caries Experience in Children." Journal of Public Health Dentistry 61 (2001): 168–171.
Griffin, S. O., K. Jones, and S. L. Tomar. "An Economic Evaluation of Community Water Fluoridation." Journal of Public Health Dentistry 61 (2001): 78–86.
International Collaborative Research on Fluorides: Research Needs Workshop, sponsored by the National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, May 1999. "International Collaborative Research on Fluoride." Journal of Dental Research 79 (2000): 893–904.
National Institutes of Health (NIH). "Diagnosis and Management of Dental Caries Throughout Life." Consensus Statement 2001, March 26–28, Vol. 18, No. 1.
Office of the Surgeon General. Oral Health in America: A Report of the Surgeon General. Rockville, Md.: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2000.
Stephen, K. W. "Fluoride Prospects for the New Millennium: Community and Individual Patient Aspects." Acta Odontologica Scandinavica 57 (1999): 352–355.
ten Cate, J. M., and Cor van Loveren. "Fluoride Mechanisms." Dental Clinics of North America 43 (1999): 713–742.
Warren, John J., and Steven M. Levy. "Systemic Fluoride: Sources, Amounts, and Effects of Ingestion." Dental Clinics of North America 43 (1999): 695–711.
—Rob Berg
| Science Dictionary: fluoride |
| Veterinary Dictionary: fluoride |
Any binary compound of fluorine. See also fluorine.
| Word Tutor: fluoride |
IN BRIEF: A salt containing a nonmetallic univalent element belonging to the halogens
Many cities add fluoride to their drinking water to help the citizens to have healthy teeth.
| Wikipedia: Fluoride |
This article is about the chemical ion F−. For the addition of fluoride ions to water supplies, see Water fluoridation.
Fluoride is the anion F−, the reduced form of fluorine. Both organic and inorganic compounds containing the element fluorine are sometimes called fluorides. Fluoride, like other halides, is a monovalent ion (−1 charge). Its compounds often have properties that are distinct relative to other halides. Structurally, and to some extent chemically, the fluoride ion resembles the hydroxide ion. Fluorine-containing compounds range from potent toxins such as sarin to life-saving pharmaceuticals such as efavirenz and from refractory materials such as calcium fluoride to the highly reactive sulfur tetrafluoride. The range of fluorine-containing compounds is considerable as fluorine is capable of forming compounds with all the elements except helium and neon.[1][2]
Compounds containing fluoride anions and in many cases those containing covalent bonds to fluorine are called fluorides.
Contents |
Occurrence
Solutions of inorganic fluorides in water contain F− and bifluoride HF2−.[3] Few inorganic fluorides are soluble in water without undergoing significant hydrolysis. Examples of inorganic fluorides include hydrofluoric acid (HF), sodium fluoride (NaF), and uranium hexafluoride (UF6). In terms of its reactivity, fluoride differs significantly from chloride and other halides, and is more strongly solvated due to its smaller radius/charge ratio. Its closest chemical relative is hydroxide. The Si-F linkage is one of the strongest single bonds. In contrast, other silyl halides are easily hydrolyzed.
Natural occurrence
Many fluoride minerals are known, but paramount in commercial importance are fluorite and fluorapatite. Fluoride is found naturally in low concentration in drinking water and foods. Water with underground sources is more likely to have higher levels of fluoride, whereas the concentration in seawater averages 1.3 parts per million (ppm).[4] Fresh water supplies generally contain between 0.01-0.3 ppm, while the ocean contains between 1.2 and 1.5 ppm.[5]
Applications
Fluorides are pervasive in modern technology. Hydrofluoric acid is the most important fluoride synthesized. It is principally used in the production of fluorocarbons and aluminium fluorides. Hydrofluoric acid has a variety of specialized applications, including its ability to dissolve glass.[6]
Organic synthesis
Fluoride reagents are significant in synthetic organic chemistry. Due to the affinity of silicon for fluoride, and the ability of silicon to expand its coordination number, silyl ether protecting groups can be easily removed by the fluoride sources such as sodium fluoride and tetra-n-butylammonium fluoride (TBAF).
Enzyme inhibitors
In biochemistry, fluoride salts are commonly used to inhibit the activity of phosphatases, such as serine/threonine phosphatases.[7] It may do this by replacing the nucleophilic hydroxyl ion in these enzymes' active sites.[8] Beryllium fluoride and aluminium fluoride are also used as phosphatase inhibitors, since these compounds are structural mimics of the phosphate group and can act as analogues of the transition state of the reaction.[9][10]
Inorganic fluorides
Sulfur hexafluoride is an inert, nontoxic insulator that is used in electrical transformers. Uranium hexafluoride is used in the separation of isotopes of uranium between the fissile isotope U-235 and the non-fissile isotope U-238 in preparation of nuclear reactor fuel and atomic bombs. The volatility of fluorides of uranium and other elements may also be used for nuclear fuel reprocessing.
Fluoropolymers
Fluoropolymers such as polytetrafluoroethylene, Teflon, are used as chemically inert and biocompatible materials for a variety of applications, including as surgical implants such as coronary bypass grafts,[11] and a replacement for soft tissue in cosmetic and reconstructive surgery.[12] These compounds are also commonly used as non-stick surfaces in cookware and bakeware, and the fluoropolymer fabric Gore-Tex used in breathable garments for outdoor use.
Cavity prevention
Main article: Fluoride therapy
Fluoride-containing compounds are used in topical and systemic fluoride therapy for preventing tooth decay. They are used for water fluoridation and in many products associated with oral hygiene.[13] Originally, sodium fluoride was used to fluoridate water; however, hexafluorosilicic acid (H2SiF6) and its salt sodium hexafluorosilicate (Na2SiF6) are more commonly used additives, especially in the United States. The fluoridation of water is known to prevent tooth decay[14][15] and is considered by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention as "one of 10 great public health achievements of the 20th century".[16][17] In some countries where large, centralized water systems are uncommon, fluoride is delivered to the populace by fluoridating table salt. Fluoridation of water is not without critics, however (see Opposition to water fluoridation).[18]
Biomedical applications
Positron emission tomography is commonly carried out using fluoride-containing pharmaceuticals such as fluorodeoxyglucose, which is labelled with the radioactive isotope fluorine-18 that emits positrons when it decays into 18O.
Numerous drugs contain fluorine including antipsychotics such as fluphenazine, HIV protease inhibitors such as tipranavir, antibiotics such as ofloxacin and trovafloxacin, and anesthetics such as halothane.[19] Fluorine is incorporated in the drug structures to reduce drug metabolism, as the strong C-F bond resists deactivation in the liver by cytochrome P450 oxidases.[20]
Toxicology
Main article: Fluoride poisoning
 |
This article may not properly summarize the main article. Specific concerns can be found on the Talk page. Please improve this article if you can. (November 2009) |
Fluoride-containing compounds are so diverse that it is not possible to generalize on their toxicity, which depends on their reactivity and structure, and in the case of salts, their solubility and ability to release fluoride ions.
Soluble fluoride salts, of which NaF is the most common, are mildly toxic but have resulted in both accidental and suicidal deaths from acute poisoning.[6] While the minimum fatal dose in humans is not known, a case of a fatal poisoning of an adult with 4 grams of NaF is documented.[21] Sodium fluorosilicate For Na2SiF6, the 50% lethal dose (LD50) orally in rats is 0.125 g/kg, corresponding to 12.5 for a 100 kg adult.<The Merck Index, 12th edition, Merck & Co., Inc., 1996>. The fatal period ranges from 5 min to 12 hours.[21] The mechanism of toxicity involves the combination of the fluoride anion with the calcium ions in the blood to form insoluble calcium fluoride, resulting in hypocalcemia; calcium is indispensable for the function of the nervous system, and the condition can be fatal. Treatment may involve oral administration of dilute calcium hydroxide or calcium chloride to prevent further absorption, and injection of calcium gluconate to increase the calcium levels in the blood.[21] Hydrogen fluoride is more dangerous than salts such as NaF because it is corrosive and volatile, and can result in fatal exposure through inhalation or upon contact with the skin; calcium gluconate gel is the usual antidote.[22]
A few organofluorine compounds are extremely toxic, such as organophosphates like sarin and diisopropylfluorophosphate that react with the cholinesterase enzyme at neuromuscular junctions and thus block the transmission of nerve impulses to the muscles.[23] Here, a reactive fluorine-phosphorus bond in the inhibitor is the site of nucleophilic attack by a serine residue in the enzyme's active site, causing the loss of a F− ion and alkylation and inactivation of the enzyme.
While PTFE itself is chemically inert and non-toxic, it begins to deteriorate near or above 500 °F (260 °C), and decompose completely at temperatures above 660 °F (350 °C).[24] These degradation products can be lethal to birds, and can cause flu-like symptoms in humans.[24] In comparison, cooking fats, oils, and butter will begin to scorch and smoke at about 392 °F (200 °C), and meat is usually fried between 400–450 °F (200–230 °C), but empty cookware can exceed this temperature if left unattended on a hot burner.
A 1959 study, (conducted before the U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved the material for use in food processing equipment) showed that the toxicity of fumes given off by the coated pan on dry heating was less than that of fumes given off by ordinary cooking oils.[25]
See also
- Dental fluorosis
- Fluoride therapy
- Fluoride deficiency
- Fluoride poisoning
- Water fluoridation
- Halide
- PTFE
References
- ^ Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, A. (1997), Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.), Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, ISBN 0-7506-3365-4 p. 804
- ^ Khriachtchev, Leonid; Mika Pettersson, Nino Runeberg, Jan Lundell & Markku Räsänen (24 August 2000). "A stable argon compound". Nature 406 (6798): 874–876. doi:. PMID 10972285. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v406/n6798/abs/406874a0.html.
- ^ Holleman, A. F.; Wiberg, E. "Inorganic Chemistry" Academic Press: San Diego, 2001. ISBN 0-12-352651-5.
- ^ Fluoride in Drinking-water: Background document for development of WHO Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality. World Health Organization, 2004, page 2. Page accessed on February 22, 2007.
- ^ Environmental Health Criteria 227: Fluorides. World Health Organization, 2002, page 38. Page accessed on February 22, 2007.
- ^ a b Aigueperse, Jean; Mollard, Paul; Devilliers, Didier; Chemla, Marius; Faron, Robert; Romano, Renée; Cuer, Jean Pierre (2005). "Fluorine Compounds, Inorganic title = Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry". Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. p. 307. doi:.
- ^ Nakai C, Thomas JA (1974). "Properties of a phosphoprotein phosphatase from bovine heart with activity on glycogen synthase, phosphorylase, and histone". J. Biol. Chem. 249 (20): 6459–67. PMID 4370977. http://www.jbc.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=4370977.
- ^ Schenk G, Elliott TW, Leung E, et al. (2008). "Crystal structures of a purple acid phosphatase, representing different steps of this enzyme's catalytic cycle". BMC Struct. Biol. 8 (1): 6. doi:. PMID 18234116. PMC 2267794. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6807/8/6.
- ^ Wang W, Cho HS, Kim R, et al. (2002). "Structural characterization of the reaction pathway in phosphoserine phosphatase: crystallographic "snapshots" of intermediate states". J. Mol. Biol. 319 (2): 421–31. doi:. PMID 12051918. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022-2836(02)00324-8.
- ^ Cho H, Wang W, Kim R, et al. (2001). "BeF(3)(-) acts as a phosphate analog in proteins phosphorylated on aspartate: structure of a BeF(3)(-) complex with phosphoserine phosphatase". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 98 (15): 8525–30. doi:. PMID 11438683. PMC 37469. http://www.pnas.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=11438683.
- ^ Kannan RY, Salacinski HJ, Butler PE, Hamilton G, Seifalian AM (2005). "Current status of prosthetic bypass grafts: a review". J. Biomed. Mater. Res. Part B Appl. Biomater. 74 (1): 570–81. doi:. PMID 15889440.
- ^ Singh S., Baker J. L. (2000). "Use of expanded polytetrafluoroethylene in aesthetic surgery of the face". Clin Plast Surg 27 (4): 579–93. PMID 11039891.
- ^ McDonagh M. S., Whiting P. F., Wilson P. M., Sutton A. J., Chestnutt I., Cooper J., Misso K., Bradley M., Treasure E., & Kleijnen J. (2000). "Systematic review of water fluoridation". British Medical Journal 321 (7265): 855–859. doi:. PMID 11021861.
- ^ Griffin SO, Regnier E, Griffin PM, Huntley V (2007). "Effectiveness of fluoride in preventing caries in adults". J. Dent. Res. 86 (5): 410–5. doi:. PMID 17452559.
- ^ Winston A. E., Bhaskar S. N. (01 Nov 1998). "Caries prevention in the 21st century". J. Am. Dent. Assoc. 129 (11): 1579–87. PMID 9818575. http://jada.ada.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=9818575.
- ^ Community Water Fluoridation - Oral Health
- ^ http://www.cdc.gov/about/history/tengpha.htm
- ^ Newbrun E (1996). "The fluoridation war: a scientific dispute or a religious argument?". J. Public Health Dent. 56 (5 Spec No): 246–52. doi:. PMID 9034969.
- ^ Park BK, Kitteringham NR, O'Neill PM (2001). "Metabolism of fluorine-containing drugs". Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 41: 443–70. doi:. PMID 11264465.
- ^ Fisher MB, Henne KR, Boer J (2006). "The complexities inherent in attempts to decrease drug clearance by blocking sites of CYP-mediated metabolism". Curr. Opin. Drug Discov. Devel. 9 (1): 101–9. PMID 16445122.
- ^ a b c I. M. Rabinowitch. Acute Fluoride Poisoning. Can Med Assoc J. 1945, 52, 345–349. [1]
- ^ Muriale L, Lee E, Genovese J, Trend S. Fatality due to acute fluoride poisoning following dermal contact with hydrofluoric acid in a palynology laboratory. Ann Occup Hyg. 1996 40, 705–710. PMID 8958774.
- ^ Marrs TC (1993). "Organophosphate poisoning". Pharmacol. Ther. 58 (1): 51–66. doi:. PMID 8415873.
- ^ a b DuPont, Key Questions About Teflon, accessed on 03 Dec 2007.
- ^ Dale Blumenthal. "Is That Newfangled Cookware Safe?". Food and Drug Administration. http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/CONSUMER/CON00036.html. Retrieved 2006-05-20.
External links
- Fluoride in groundwater worldwide - IGRAC International Groundwater Resources Assessment Centre
This entry is from Wikipedia, the leading user-contributed encyclopedia. It may not have been reviewed by professional editors (see full disclaimer)
| Translations: Fluoride |
Dansk (Danish)
n. - fluorid, fluormetal
Français (French)
n. - fluorure
Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - (χημ.) φθοριούχο άλας, φθορίδιο
Português (Portuguese)
n. - fluoreto (m) (Quím.)
Русский (Russian)
фторид, фтористое соединение
Español (Spanish)
n. - fluoruro
Svenska (Swedish)
n. - fluorid, fluorförening
中文（简体）(Chinese (Simplified))
氟化物
中文（繁體）(Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 氟化物
العربيه (Arabic)
(الاسم) الفلوريد
עברית (Hebrew)
n. - פלואוריד, מלח של חומצת פלור
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