(pl. ge'onim). Honorific title borne by the heads of the Academies of Sura and Pumbedita in Babylonia in the post-talmudic period from the seventh to 11th centuries; it alludes to the phrase, "For the Lord has restored the pride [ge'on] of Jacob" (Nah. 2:3). The office bestowed power and authority far beyond that enjoyed by the heads of the academies in the preceding talmudic period.
The influence of the ge'onim extended far beyond the confines of Babylonia, then the religious and cultural center of Diaspora Jewry. They were a major factor in the maintenance of Jewish unity. From Egypt, North Africa, Christian and Muslim Spain, questions on all aspects of Judaism were sent to the academies, and the ge'onim possessed the exclusive right to respond to them.
These Responsa constitute an invaluable source for the religious, economic, and social history of the time, to which the discovery of the Cairo Genizah, where numerous geonic responsa were found, added immeasurably.
The unquestioned authority of the ge'onim is reflected in the almost stereotyped conclusion of their responsa: for example, "This is the law and it is forbidden to deviate from it to the right or to the left." In Babylonia itself, the authority of the gaonate rested primarily on the semi-official recognition by the Caliphate. The ge'onim were appointed by the head of the Jewish community, the Exilarch; however, the office was quasi-hereditary and came to be looked upon as the prescriptive right of a few influential families. In Sura, for example, over almost 200 years, the gaonate was the almost exclusive possession of three families. A gaon received a fixed salary, as well as a share of the donations sent to the academies by individuals and communities, both local and foreign. For both fiscal and administrative purposes, Babylonia was divided into three districts, two of which were under the jurisdiction of the ge'onim of the two academies and one under the Exilarch. In the district assigned to him, the gaon or Exilarch had the exclusive right of appointing judges and other communal officers. The judges had the right (approved by the Muslim authorities) to either publicly flog a violator of the halakhah or to excommunicate him.The gaon was installed in his office with great pomp. His primary emphasis was on learning, and in this, in most instances, he far surpassed the Exilarch. Hence the decisions of the latter's court had to receive the approval of the ge'onim. There were periods of bitter controversy between the two parties, the most famous of which was between Saadiah Gaon and the Exilarch David ben Zakkai, who at one stage deposed him as gaon of Sura. Saadiah, in turn, deposed the Exilarch and, as a result, was compelled to go into hiding. After some time, he was restored to his post. Saadiah Gaon, appointed in 928, was the greatest figure connected with Sura, excelling in halakhah, biblical exegesis, and philosophy. Following his death, the Academy closed for 45 years, becoming prominent again under his successor Samuel Ben Hofni (1003-13). The Pumbedita Academy's greatest period was under the leadership of Sherira Gaon (968-98) and his son Hai Gaon (998-1038). The former, author of a letter which is the only source for the history of the geonic period, restored for a time the prestige of the Babylonian center, which was being supplanted by the new settlements in the West. Under Hai, Pumbedita continued as the foremost world center of Jewish scholarship. After his death, the two academies, by then both in Baghdad, joined together and continued to operate for another 150 years. Erets Israel too evolved its own gaonate, beginning at the end of the ninth century and lasting until 1109. However, the ge'onim there were less learned than their Babylonian counterparts, their main achievement being in maintaining the tradition of the academies of the Land of Israel under difficult political circumstances. The ge'onim made a lasting contribution to literature, especially talmudic literature; in their time they succeeded in giving the Talmud a key role in national life. In this regard, the ge'onim of Sura, with a few exceptions, far outshone those of Pumbedita. The responsa of the ge'onim of Sura were four times more numerous than those by the Pumbedita ge'onim. The ge'onim provided numerous explanations of passages in the Talmud in response to inquiries by correspondents. Their unique value derives from the fact that during this period there was an oral tradition of talmudic interpretation dating back to the time of the Savoraim (who preceded the ge'onim). Of special importance is the pioneering work of the ge'onim in the Codification of the halakhah. Since the Talmud is highly discursive, to determine the final halakhah in a specific matter would require reviewing its three thousand folio pages. The pioneering work in this area of codification is Halakhot Gedolot by R. Yehudai Gaon of Sura (approx. 757-761), later supplemented by R. Simeon Kayyara. In this area, the collections and classifications of specific halakhic topics by Saadiah Gaon are models of logical and systematic arrangement, which inspired Hai to compile similar collections.
The ge'onim also pioneered in the field of liturgy. R. Amram Gaon of Sura (853-856) compiled the first complete Order of Prayers (see Prayer Book). Particularly valuable are the halakhic annotations that accompany the prayers. A somewhat similar Order of Prayers, based on Egyptian liturgical practice, was compiled by Saadiah.
The term Gaon, in later usage in other countries, came to mean an outstanding scholar; the great East European scholar and spiritual leader Elijah Ben Solomon Zalman (1720-1797), for example, was known as the Vilna Gaon.
