n.
- The total genetic content contained in a haploid set of chromosomes in eukaryotes, in a single chromosome in bacteria, or in the DNA or RNA of viruses.
- An organism's genetic material.
genome
Dictionary:
ge·nome (jē'nōm') 
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also ge·nom (-nŏm)
n.
n.
5min Related Video:
genome |
Britannica Concise Encyclopedia:
genome |
genome
For more information on genome, visit Britannica.com.
World of the Body:
genome |
The total DNA sequence that characterizes a species, including man. The Human Genome Project, aimed at sequencing the DNA in human chromosomes, was completed at the end of the millennium.
— Alan W. Cuthbert
Dental Dictionary:
genome |
n
The total gene complement of a set of chromosomes found in higher life forms.
Genetics Encyclopedia:
Genome |
A genome is the complete collection of hereditary information for an individual organism. In cellular life forms, the hereditary information exists as DNA. There are two fundamentally distinct types of cells in the living world, prokaryotic and eukaryotic, and the organization of genomes differs in these two types of cells.
Prokaryotes comprise the bacteria and archaea. The latter were originally designated "extremophiles" because they favor such extreme environments as high acidity, salinity, or temperature. Prokaryotic cells tend to be very small, have few or no cytoplasmic organelles, and have the cellular DNA arranged in a "nucleoid region" that is not separated from the remainder of the cell by any membrane. Eukaryotes exist as unicellular or multicellular organisms. Among the unicellular eukaryotes are the protozoa, some types of algae, and a few forms of fungi, while the multicellular organisms include animals, plants, and most fungi.
Eukaryotic cells are larger than prokaryotic cells, have a complex array of cytoplasmic structures, and have a prominent nucleus that communicates with components in the cytoplasm through an elaborate nuclear envelope. The hereditary information occurs principally in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells; in addition, minuscule (but essential) amounts of hereditary information occur in some cytoplasmic organelles (specifically, in chloroplasts for plants and algae, and in mitochondria for all eukaryotic groups).
Eukaryotic cells pass through a "cycle," progressing from a newly formed cell to a cell that is dividing to produce the next generation of progeny cells. Prior to division, the cell is in an "interphase"; during division, the cell is in a "division phase." During interphase, the nuclear DNA is organized in a dispersed network of chromatin, which is a complex consisting of nucleic acid and basic proteins. Immediately prior to and during division, the chromatin condenses to a series of discrete, compact structures called chromosomes. Thus, the physical organization of the genome varies from inter-phase to division phase. Finally, viruses (which are noncellular, parasitic "life forms") have genomes of double-stranded DNA, single-stranded DNA, double-stranded RNA, or single-stranded RNA.
Eukaryotes
In sexually reproducing eukaryotes, progeny organisms receive a portion of their genetic information from each parent, receiving half the information from each. These parental contributions are designated haploid complements. The haploid complement can be represented as a "C value," which expresses the haploid complement as an amount of DNA measured in base pairs. Alternatively, the haploid complement can be expressed as the number of chromosomes contributed by each parent: This number of chromosomes is characteristic of each species. Finally, the haploid complement can be expressed as the number of genes on the haploid set of chromosomes.
Chromosome Number
Each species has a characteristic number of chromosomes. For species with genetically determined sexes, the haploid set is composed of autosomes plus a sex chromosome. Homo sapiens, for example, have 22 autosomes plus an X chromosome or Y chromosome. The haploid DNA content of chimpanzees is nearly identical, but is organized into 23 autosomes plus a sex chromosome.
The record for minimum number of chromosomes belongs to a sub-species of the ant, Myrmecia pilosula. The females have a single pair of chromosomes, while males have only a single chromosome. Like some other members of the insect class, these ants reproduce by a process called haplodiploidy, in which diploid fertilized eggs develop into females, while haploid unfertilized eggs develop into males.
The record for maximum number of chromosomes is found in the plant kingdom, due to a condition known as polyploidy. In polyploidy, many extra sets of chromosomes beyond the normal diploid number may accumulate over time. Cultivars of wheat exist with diploid numbers of chromosomes equaling 14, 28, or 42 (multiples of the haploid number, which is 7). Polyploids exist for many cultivated plants, including potatoes, strawberries, and cotton, as well as in wild plants such as dandelions. Polyploidy has led to striking numbers, and the known record is held by the fern Ophioglossum reticulatum, which has approximately 630 pairs.
Genome Size or C Value
The C value is the amount of DNA in a haploid complement. Currently, the amount is reported as the total number of base pairs. Generally, more complex organisms have more DNA. For example, the haploid complement of Homo sapiens DNA contains between 3.12 and 3.2 gigabases (the prefix "giga" denotes billions), while the haploid complement of yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) DNA contains 12,057,500 base pairs.
Unexpected genomic sizes occur, however, in a condition called the C value paradox. Two closely related species can have widely divergent amounts of DNA. For example, Paramecium caudatum has a C value of 8,600,000 kilobases (where the prefix "kilo" denotes thousands) while its near relative P. aurelia has a C value of just 190,000 kilobases. Another paradoxical circumstance occurs when a simpler organism has a C value higher than a more complex organism. For example, Amphiuma means (a newt) and Amoeba dubia (an amoeba) have, respectively, C values that are 26 and 209 times the C value of humans.
Number of Nuclear Genes, "Gene Density," and Intergenic Sequences
An important trend in genome evolution has been the accumulation, both within the genes (intragenic) and between genes (intergenic), of DNA that does not code for any gene products. Homo sapiens have between 31,000 and 70,000 genes; mice have 24,780; Caenorhabditis elegans (a roundworm) has more than 19,099; fruit flies have 13,601; and yeast approximately 6,000. A ratio of gene number to C value indicates that lower organisms have both smaller genes and lower numbers of nongene base pairs between adjacent genes. Higher eukaryotes have a larger number of intragenic inserts (introns), greater intergenic distances, and more abundant repeated sequences.
In higher eukaryotes, only a small portion of the genome is organized into genes. For example, in humans less than 2 percent of the genome specifies protein products. Another portion (about 20 percent in humans) is present as gene fragments, pseudogenes (sequences that resemble genes but are not expressed as proteins), and surrounding stretches of nucleotides. The vast majority of nucleotides (approximately 75 percent in humans) constitute extragenic sequences. Two forms of extragenic sequences are prominent: unique sequences and repetitive sequences.
For repetitive sequences, two types of organization occur: short tandem repeats (called satellite sequences) and widely distributed, interspersed repeats. Satellites are recurrent short sequences present in essential chromosomal structures such as centromeres and telomeres. Interspersed repeats are generated from transposons, which are nucleotide sequences that can replicate themselves and become distributed throughout the genome. An example of interspersed repeats that occurs in humans is a sequence of a few hundred nucleotides called Alu, which occurs approximately a million times. In higher plants, satellites and interspersed sequences constitute the bulk of the genome.
Ploidy
Ploidy reflects the reproductive mechanisms of an organism. Animals commonly have both a maternal and a paternal parent. Through meiosis, the former forms a haploid gamete called an ovum (or egg); the latter forms a haploid gamete called a sperm. During fertilization, the egg and sperm unite to form a diploid zygote that matures to an adult organism. Thus, the genome of adult animals is diploid, while the genome of their gametes is haploid.
Plants exhibit an alternation of generations; sporophytes (the mature, visible plant) are diploid; through meiosis, they produce spores that germinate into gametophytes; the gametophytes are haploid and produce gametes that fuse to reestablish the diploid state. Fungi also exhibit an alternation of generations. They commonly exist as multinucleate tubes of cytoplasm called hyphae. The individual nuclei are most often haploid (though may be diploid in the lower fungi).
Hyphae of different members of a fungal species sometimes fuse; in this circumstance (called heterokaryosis) the genome becomes the sum of the two (dikaryotic) haploid complements. Unicellular protistan organisms, a group that includes protozoans and most algae, exhibit many variations. For example, the ciliates (such as paramecia) have diploid micronuclei and polyploid macronuclei; the former are the basis of inheritance; the latter establish the genetic character of an existing organism.
Mitochondrial and Chloroplast Genomes
Two cytoplasmic organelles responsible for the production of energy are the mitochondria (present in nearly all eukaryotic cells) and chloroplasts (present only in photosynthetic organisms). Both contain small, circular DNA molecules that constitute the nonnuclear portion of a eukaryotic genome. These organelles are descended from formerly free-living bacteria that took up residence in the first eukaryotes.
The human mitochondrial genome contains 16,569 base pairs specifying 13 protein products and 24 RNA products. In both lower eukaryotes and especially plants, larger mitochondrial genomes are present. In extreme cases, mitochondrial genomes may be several hundred thousand or millions of base pairs. Chloroplast genomes contain between 100 and 200 kilobases. It is thought that each was once larger, but over time their genes have been moved to the nucleus.
Prokaryotes
Prokaryotic genomes are composed of a chromosome plus various accessory elements. The former is most commonly a circular double-stranded DNA molecule but may be a linear molecule in some major groups, such as Streptomyces and Borrelia (the causative agent of Lyme disease). Accessory elements most prominently include plasmids (commonly circular but linear in Actinomycetes and some Proteobacteria) as well as insertion sequence (IS) elements, transposons, and prophages (derived from viruses). Other variations in chromosomal geometry exist: multiple circular chromosomes are found in some organisms; combinations of circular and linear chromosomes occur in others; and, in the extreme (observed in Streptomyces), circular and linear chromosomes can convert between those two topologies.
The smallest bacterial chromosome, with only 580 kilobase pairs (kbp) occurs in Mycoplasma genitalium, and the largest, with 9,200 kbp, occurs in Myxococcus xanthus. Representative sizes cluster between 2,000 and 5,000 kbp (e.g., Escherichia coli MG1655 has 4,649,221 bp). A typical bacterial gene contains approximately a thousand base pairs. M. genitalium has approximately 470 genes, while M. xanthus has more than 10,000, and E. coli has approximately 4,288.
By 2002 the nucleotide sequences of more than seventy-five prokaryotic chromosomes had been mapped. One goal of these sequencing projects is gene annotation: establishing the location, function, and allelic variation for each gene. In E. coli MG1655, for example, the positions of the 4,288 protein-coding genes have been identified; the average distance between genes is 118 base pairs; and the noncoding sequences (some of which may function as regulatory sites) constitute less than 11 percent of the genome. The function of approximately 40 percent of the genes, however, remains unknown. Notably, the chromosomal size and gene content of another isolate of E. coli, the pathogenic H157:O7 strain, are quite different. The H157:O7 chromosome is 20 percent larger, while MG1655 and H157:O7 share 4.1 million base pairs (mbp) in common. H157:O7 has 1.34 mbp that are not found in MG1655 and MG1655 has 0.53 mbp that are not found in H157:O7.
The genomes of closely related prokaryotes often have different organizations. These differences arise from rearrangements (such as inversions) between repeated elements, IS elements, and transposons and from the "horizontal transfer" of nucleotide sequences between cells. The latter phenomenon is mediated most commonly by conjugative plasmids, which are nonessential, autonomous accessory genetic elements that can acquire genes (such as antibiotic resistance genes) and then move them from a donor organism to a recipient. The dynamic character of genomic organization in prokaryotes is often designated as "genomic plasticity."
A series of repeated elements exist in the chromosomes of prokaryotes. In some instances the repeats are redundant copies of essential, long nucleotide sequences, as is seen in ribosomal RNA loci. Other repeats are small and have known functions (as in the Chi sequences in E. coli that facilitate genetic crossing over) or unknown functions (as in the REP [repeated extragenic palindromic] sequences in E. coli).
Viruses
Viral genomes are composed of single-stranded or double-stranded DNA or RNA. Single-stranded RNAs are either positive (capable of being immediately translated into protein) or negative. Double-stranded RNA genomes are most often segmented, with each segment being a single gene, while the other genomes are single circular or linear molecules. The Retroviridae have single-stranded RNA genomes that are converted by an enzyme (reverse transcriptase) into double-stranded DNA that becomes incorporated into the genome of the host.
The smallest known virus, containing 5,386 bases, is a member of the Microviridae, which infects bacteria and is designated fX174. The largest viral genomes occur in Poxviridae, which can possess as many as 309 kbp.
Viruses are extraordinarily efficient in using the coding capacity of their genomes. The virus known as fX174 contains ten genes, and the end of one gene commonly overlaps with the beginning of the following gene. In addition, two smaller genes are nested within larger genes (this compaction being achieved by having the two genes expressed in alternate "reading frames"). As a consequence of this efficiency, only 36 bases are not translated into an amino acid sequence. At the opposite extreme, the various pox viruses share more than 100 similar genes and may have an equal number of unique genes.
Bibliography
Brown, T. A. Genomes. New York: Wiley-Liss, 1999.
Casjens, Sherwood. "The Diverse and Dynamic Structure of Bacterial Genomes." Annual Review of Genetics 32 (1998): 339-377.
Gould, Stephen J. "The Ant and the Plant." In Bully for Brontosaurus. New York:
W. W. Norton, 1991.
—Steven Krawiec
Philosophy Dictionary:
genome |
Veterinary Dictionary:
genome |
All of the genes carried by a gamete, i.e. the complete set of hereditary factors contained in the chromosomal DNA. For some viruses, the genome is RNA.
- diploid g. — having two genetically identical RNA molecules of RNA, characteristic of retroviruses.
- integrated g. — the integration of the viral DNA into the cellular DNA of the host, as occurs in some kinds of persistent infections and the induction of tumors.
- segmented g. — the genome is composed of separate segments. A characteristic of some viruses.
Science Dictionary:
genome |
(jee-nohm)
The sum of all information contained in the DNA for any living thing. The sequence of all the nucleotides in all the chromosomes of an organism.
Wikipedia:
Genome |
For a non-technical introduction to the topic, see Introduction to genetics.
For other uses, see Genome (disambiguation).
In modern molecular biology, the genome is the entirety of an organism's hereditary information. It is encoded either in DNA or, for many types of virus, in RNA.
The genome includes both the genes and the non-coding sequences of the DNA.[1] The term was adapted in 1920 by Hans Winkler, Professor of Botany at the University of Hamburg, Germany. The Oxford English Dictionary suggests the name to be a portmanteau of the words gene and chromosome. A few related -ome words already existed, such as biome and rhizome, forming a vocabulary into which genome fits systematically.[2]
Some organisms have multiple copies of chromosomes, diploid, triploid, tetraploid and so on. In classical genetics, in a sexually reproducing organism (typically eukarya) the gamete has half of the number of chromosome of the somatic cell and the genome is a full set of chromosomes in a gamete. In haploid organisms, including cells of bacteria, archaea, and in organelles including mitochondria and chloroplasts, or viruses, that similarly contain genes, the single or set of circular and/or linear chains of DNA (or RNA for some viruses), likewise constitute the genome. The term genome can be applied specifically to mean that stored on a complete set of nuclear DNA (i.e., the "nuclear genome") but can also be applied to that stored within organelles that contain their own DNA, as with the "mitochondrial genome" or the "chloroplast genome". Additionally, the genome can comprise nonchromosomal genetic elements such as viruses, plasmids, and transposable elements[3]. When people say that the genome of a sexually reproducing species has been "sequenced", typically they are referring to a determination of the sequences of one set of autosomes and one of each type of sex chromosome, which together represent both of the possible sexes. Even in species that exist in only one sex, what is described as "a genome sequence" may be a composite read from the chromosomes of various individuals. In general use, the phrase "genetic makeup" is sometimes used conversationally to mean the genome of a particular individual or organism. The study of the global properties of genomes of related organisms is usually referred to as genomics, which distinguishes it from genetics which generally studies the properties of single genes or groups of genes.
Both the number of base pairs and the number of genes vary widely from one species to another, and there is only a rough correlation between the two (an observation known as the C-value paradox). At present, the highest known number of genes is around 60,000, for the protozoan causing trichomoniasis (see List of sequenced eukaryotic genomes), almost three times as many as in the human genome.
An analogy to the human genome stored on DNA is that of instructions stored in a library:
- The library would contain 46 books (chromosomes)
- The books range in size from 400 to 3340 pages (genes)
- which is 48 to 250 million letters (A,C,G,T) per book.
- Hence the library contains over six billion letters total;
- The library fits into a cell nucleus the size of a pinpoint;
- A copy of the library (all 46 books) is contained in almost every cell of our body.
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Contents
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Types
Most biological entities that are more complex than a virus sometimes or always carry additional genetic material besides that which resides in their chromosomes. In some contexts, such as sequencing the genome of a pathogenic microbe, "genome" is meant to include information stored on this auxiliary material, which is carried in plasmids. In such circumstances then, "genome" describes all of the genes and information on non-coding DNA that have the potential to be present.
In eukaryotes such as plants, protozoa and animals, however, "genome" carries the typical connotation of only information on chromosomal DNA. So although these organisms contain chloroplasts and/or mitochondria that have their own DNA, the genetic information contained by DNA within these organelles is not considered part of the genome. In fact, mitochondria are sometimes said to have their own genome often referred to as the "mitochondrial genome". The DNA found within the chloroplast may be referred to as the "plastome".
Genomes and genetic variation
Note that a genome does not capture the genetic diversity or the genetic polymorphism of a species. For example, the human genome sequence in principle could be determined from just half the information on the DNA of one cell from one individual. To learn what variations in genetic information underlie particular traits or diseases requires comparisons across individuals. This point explains the common usage of "genome" (which parallels a common usage of "gene") to refer not to the information in any particular DNA sequence, but to a whole family of sequences that share a biological context.
Although this concept may seem counter intuitive, it is the same concept that says there is no particular shape that is the shape of a cheetah. Cheetahs vary, and so do the sequences of their genomes. Yet both the individual animals and their sequences share commonalities, so one can learn something about cheetahs and "cheetah-ness" from a single example of either.
Sequencing and mapping
For more details on this topic, see Genome project.
The Human Genome Project was organized to map and to sequence the human genome. Other genome projects include mouse, rice, the plant Arabidopsis thaliana, the puffer fish, bacteria like E. coli, etc. In 1976, Walter Fiers at the University of Ghent (Belgium) was the first to establish the complete nucleotide sequence of a viral RNA-genome (bacteriophage MS2). The first DNA-genome project to be completed was the Phage Φ-X174, with only 5386 base pairs, which was sequenced by Fred Sanger in 1977 . The first bacterial genome to be completed was that of Haemophilus influenzae, completed by a team at The Institute for Genomic Research in 1995.
The development of new technologies has dramatically decreased the difficulty and cost of sequencing, and the number of complete genome sequences is rising rapidly. Among many genome database sites, the one maintained by the US National Institutes of Health is inclusive.[4]
These new technologies open up the prospect of personal genome sequencing as an important diagnostic tool. A major step toward that goal was the May 2007 New York Times announcement that the full genome of DNA pioneer James D. Watson was deciphered.[5]
Whereas a genome sequence lists the order of every DNA base in a genome, a genome map identifies the landmarks. A genome map is less detailed than a genome sequence and aids in navigating around the genome.[6][7]
Comparison of different genome sizes
Main article: Genome size
| Organism type | Organism | Genome size (base pairs) | mass - in pg | Note |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Virus | Bacteriophage MS2 | 3,569 | 0.000002 | First sequenced RNA-genome[8] |
| Virus | SV40 | 5,224 | [9] | |
| Virus | Phage Φ-X174 | 5,386 | First sequenced DNA-genome[10] | |
| Virus | HIV | 9749[11] | ||
| Virus | Phage λ | 48,502 | ||
| Virus | Mimivirus | 1,181,404 | Largest known viral genome | |
| Bacterium | Haemophilus influenzae | 1,830,000 | First genome of living organism, July 1995[12] | |
| Bacterium | Carsonella ruddii | 159,662 | Smallest non-viral genome.[13] | |
| Bacterium | Buchnera aphidicola | 600,000 | ||
| Bacterium | Wigglesworthia glossinidia | 700,000 | ||
| Bacterium | Escherichia coli | 4,600,000 | [14] | |
| Bacterium | Solibacter usitatus (strain Ellin 6076) | 9,970,000 | Largest known Bacterial genome | |
| Amoeboid | Polychaos dubium ("Amoeba" dubia) | 670,000,000,000 | 737 | Largest known genome.[15] |
| Plant | Arabidopsis thaliana | 157,000,000 | First plant genome sequenced, December 2000.[16] | |
| Plant | Genlisea margaretae | 63,400,000 | Smallest recorded flowering plant genome, 2006.[16] | |
| Plant | Fritillaria assyrica | 130,000,000,000 | ||
| Plant | Populus trichocarpa | 480,000,000 | First tree genome, September 2006 | |
| Moss | Physcomitrella patens | 480,000,000 | First genome of a bryophyte, January 2008 [17] | |
| Yeast | Saccharomyces cerevisiae | 12,100,000 | [18] | |
| Fungus | Aspergillus nidulans | 30,000,000 | ||
| Nematode | Caenorhabditis elegans | 100,300,000 | First multicellular animal genome, December 1998[19] | |
| Nematode | Pratylenchus coffeae | 20,000,000 | Smallest animal genome known[20] | |
| Insect | Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly) | 130,000,000 | [21] | |
| Insect | Bombyx mori (silk moth) | 530,000,000 | ||
| Insect | Apis mellifera (honey bee) | 1,770,000,000 | ||
| Fish | Tetraodon nigroviridis (type of puffer fish) | 385,000,000 | Smallest vertebrate genome known | |
| Mammal | Homo sapiens | 3,200,000,000 | 3 | |
| Fish | Protopterus aethiopicus (marbled lungfish) | 130,000,000,000 | 143 | Largest vertebrate genome known |
Note: The DNA from a single (diploid) human cell if the 46 chromosomes were connected end-to-end and straightened, would have a length of ~2 m and a width of ~2.4 nanometers.
Since genomes and their organisms are very complex, one research strategy is to reduce the number of genes in a genome to the bare minimum and still have the organism in question survive. There is experimental work being done on minimal genomes for single cell organisms as well as minimal genomes for multicellular organisms (see Developmental biology). The work is both in vivo and in silico.[22][23]
Genome evolution
Genomes are more than the sum of an organism's genes and have traits that may be measured and studied without reference to the details of any particular genes and their products. Researchers compare traits such as chromosome number (karyotype), genome size, gene order, codon usage bias, and GC-content to determine what mechanisms could have produced the great variety of genomes that exist today (for recent overviews, see Brown 2002; Saccone and Pesole 2003; Benfey and Protopapas 2004; Gibson and Muse 2004; Reese 2004; Gregory 2005).
Duplications play a major role in shaping the genome. Duplications may range from extension of short tandem repeats, to duplication of a cluster of genes, and all the way to duplications of entire chromosomes or even entire genomes. Such duplications are probably fundamental to the creation of genetic novelty.
Horizontal gene transfer is invoked to explain how there is often extreme similarity between small portions of the genomes of two organisms that are otherwise very distantly related. Horizontal gene transfer seems to be common among many microbes. Also, eukaryotic cells seem to have experienced a transfer of some genetic material from their chloroplast and mitochondrial genomes to their nuclear chromosomes.
See also
- Full Genome Sequencing
- Gene
- Gene family
- Genome Comparison
- Human genome
- Human microbiome project
- List of omics topics in biology
- List of sequenced eukaryotic genomes
- List of sequenced bacterial genomes
- List of sequenced archeal genomes
- List of sequenced plastomes
- Minimal Genome Project
- Mitochondrial genome
- Molecular systematics
- Molecular evolution
- Multigenomic organism
- Honey Bee Genome Sequencing Consortium
- National Human Genome Research Institute
References
- ^ Ridley, M. (2006). Genome. New York, NY: Harper Perennial. ISBN 0-06-019497-9
- ^ Joshua Lederberg and Alexa T. McCray (2001). "'Ome Sweet 'Omics -- A Genealogical Treasury of Words". The Scientist 15 (7). http://lhncbc.nlm.nih.gov/lhc/docs/published/2001/pub2001047.pdf.
- ^ Madigan M, Martinko J (editors) (2006). Brock Biology of Microorganisms (11th ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-144329-1.
- ^ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?db=Genome&itool=toolbar
- ^ http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/31/science/31cnd-gene.html?em&ex=1180843200&en=19e1d55639350b73&ei=5087%0A
- ^ http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/resources/whats_a_genome/Chp3_1.shtml
- ^ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/About/primer/mapping.html
- ^ Fiers W, et al. (1976). "Complete nucleotide-sequence of bacteriophage MS2-RNA - primary and secondary structure of replicase gene". Nature 260 (5551): 500–507. doi:. PMID 1264203. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v260/n5551/abs/260500a0.html.
- ^ Fiers W, Contreras R, Haegemann G, Rogiers R, Van de Voorde A, Van Heuverswyn H, Van Herreweghe J, Volckaert G, Ysebaert M (1978). "Complete nucleotide sequence of SV40 DNA". Nature 273 (5658): 113–120. doi:. PMID 205802. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v273/n5658/abs/273113a0.html.
- ^ Sanger F, Air GM, Barrell BG, Brown NL, Coulson AR, Fiddes CA, Hutchison CA, Slocombe PM, Smith M (1977). "Nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage phi X174 DNA". Nature 265 (5596): 687–695. doi:. PMID 870828. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v265/n5596/abs/265687a0.html.
- ^ VIROLOGY - HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS AND AIDS, STRUCTURE: The Genome AND PROTEINS of HIV
- ^ Fleischmann R, Adams M, White O, Clayton R, Kirkness E, Kerlavage A, Bult C, Tomb J, Dougherty B, Merrick J (1995). "Whole-genome random sequencing and assembly of Haemophilus influenzae Rd". Science 269 (5223): 496–512. doi:. PMID 7542800. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/269/5223/496.
- ^ Nakabachi A, Yamashita A, Toh H, et al. (October 2006). "The 160-kilobase genome of the bacterial endosymbiont Carsonella". Science (journal) 314 (5797): 267. doi:. PMID 17038615.
- ^ Frederick R. Blattner, Guy Plunkett III, et al. (1997). "The Complete Genome Sequence of Escherichia coli K-12". Science 277 (5331): 1453–1462. doi:. PMID 9278503. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/277/5331/1453.
- ^ Parfrey, L.W.; Lahr, D.J.G.; Katz, L.A. (2008). "The Dynamic Nature of Eukaryotic Genomes". Molecular Biology and Evolution 25 (4): 787. doi:. PMID 18258610.
- ^ a b Greilhuber, J., Borsch, T., Müller, K., Worberg, A., Porembski, S., and Barthlott, W. (2006). "Smallest angiosperm genomes found in Lentibulariaceae, with chromosomes of bacterial size". Plant Biology 8 (6): 770–777. doi:. PMID 17203433.
- ^ Daniel Lang, Andreas D. Zimmer, Stefan A. Rensing, Ralf Reski(2008): Exploring plant biodiversity: the Physcomitrella genome and beyond. Trends in Plant Science 13, 542-549. [1]
- ^ http://www.yeastgenome.org/
- ^ The C. elegans Sequencing Consortium (1998). "Genome sequence of the nematode C. elegans: a platform for investigating biology". Science 282 (5396): 2012–2018. doi:. PMID 9851916. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/282/5396/2012.
- ^ "Gregory, T.R. (2005). Animal Genome Size Database. http://www.genomesize.com.". http://www.genomesize.com/statistics.php?stats=entire#stats_top.
- ^ Adams MD, Celniker SE, Holt RA, et al. (2000). "The genome sequence of Drosophila melanogaster". Science 287 (5461): 2185–95. doi:. PMID 10731132. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/287/5461/2185. Retrieved 2007-05-25.
- ^ Glass JI, Assad-Garcia N, Alperovich N, Yooseph S, Lewis MR, Maruf M, Hutchison CA 3rd, Smith HO, Venter JC (2006). "Essential genes of a minimal bacterium.". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103 (2): 425–30. doi:. PMID 16407165.
- ^ Forster AC, Church GM (2006). "Towards synthesis of a minimal cell". Mol Syst Biol. 2:45: 45. doi:. PMID 16924266.
Further reading
- Benfey, P.; Protopapas, A.D. (2004). Essentials of Genomics. Prentice Hall.
- Brown, Terence A. (2002). Genomes 2. Oxford: Bios Scientific Publishers. ISBN 978-1859960295.
- Gibson, Greg; Muse, Spencer V. (2004). A Primer of Genome Science (Second ed.). Sunderland, Mass: Sinauer Assoc. ISBN 0-87893-234-8.
- Gregory, T. Ryan (ed) (2005). The Evolution of the Genome. Elsevier. ISBN 0-12-301463-8.
- Reece, Richard J. (2004). Analysis of Genes and Genomes. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-470-84379-9.
- Saccone, Cecilia; Pesole, Graziano (2003). Handbook of Comparative Genomics. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-39128-X.
- Werner, E. (2003). "In silico multicellular systems biology and minimal genomes". Drug Discov Today 8 (24): 1121–1127. doi:. PMID 14678738.
- Witzany, G. (2006). "Natural Genome Editing Competences of Viruses". Acta Biotheoretica 54 (4): 235–253. doi:. PMID 17347785.
External links
- Some comparative genome sizes
- DNA Interactive: The History of DNA Science
- DNA From The Beginning
- All About The Human Genome Project from Genome.gov
- Animal genome size database
- Plant genome size database
- GOLD:Genomes OnLine Database
- The Genome News Network
- NCBI Entrez Genome Project database
- NCBI Genome Primer
- BBC News - Final genome 'chapter' published
- The Plant Genome
- IMG The Integrated Microbial Genomes system, for genome analysis by the DOE-JGI.
- CAMERA Cyberinfrastructure for Metagenomics, data repository and bioinformatics tools for metagenomic research
- GeneCards an integrated database of human genes.
- Genome@IGIB Resources and News on the Zebrafish Genome Project @ IGIB.
- GeKnome Technologies Next-Gen Sequencing Data Analysis Next-Gen Sequencing Data Analysis for Illumina and 454 Service from GeKnome Technologies.
- What Genomes Can Tell Us About the Past - lecture by Sydney Brenner
- Genome metaphor, reflecting from formal-net hierarchies, and software binaries.
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Translations:
genome |
Genome
Dansk (Danish)
n. - genom, kromosomsæt
Nederlands (Dutch)
genoom (biologie)
Deutsch (German)
n. - Genom, Chromosomensatz, Erbmasse
Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - γενότυπος, γονότυπος
Português (Portuguese)
n. - genoma (m) (Genética)
Русский (Russian)
геном, комплект хромосом
Svenska (Swedish)
n. - komplett uppsättning av kromosomer
中文（简体）(Chinese (Simplified))
基因组, 染色体组
中文（繁體）(Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 基因組, 染色體組
العربيه (Arabic)
(الاسم) مجموعه العوامل الوراثيه
עברית (Hebrew)
n. - סה"כ החומר הגנטי המאפיין זן של יצור חי, מערכת של כרומוזומים בודדים (ללא בני-זוג) ביצור חי
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 | Dictionary. The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition Copyright © 2007, 2000 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Updated in 2009. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. Read more |
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| Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. © 1994-2009 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. All rights reserved. Read more |
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| World of the Body. The Oxford Companion to the Body. Copyright © 2001, 2003 by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. Read more |
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| Dental Dictionary. Mosby's Dental Dictionary. Copyright © 2004 by Elsevier, Inc. All rights reserved. Read more |
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| Genetics Encyclopedia. Genetics. Copyright © 2003 by The Gale Group, Inc. All rights reserved. Read more |
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| Philosophy Dictionary. The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Copyright © 1994, 1996, 2005 by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. Read more |
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| Veterinary Dictionary. Saunders Comprehensive Veterinary Dictionary 3rd Edition. Copyright © 2007 by D.C. Blood, V.P. Studdert and C.C. Gay, Elsevier. All rights reserved. Read more |
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| Science Dictionary. The New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy, Third Edition Edited by E.D. Hirsch, Jr., Joseph F. Kett, and James Trefil. Copyright © 2002 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin. All rights reserved. Read more |
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Mentioned in
- provirus (virology)
- C value
- transposon
- pol gene
- transgene
- Mitochondrial inheritance (in medicine)
- microsatellites
- temperate phage (virology)
- DNA virus (virus)
- genomic DNA (full complement of DNA)
- env gene
- gag gene
- genomics
- transgenesis
- Eubacteria
- Evolutionof Genes
- Gene
- Genomics
- Human Genome Project
- Polymorphisms
- Polyploidy
- Reading Frame
- Reverse Transcriptase
- Transposable Genetic Elements
- Virus
