n.
A hormone produced by the pancreas that stimulates an increase in blood sugar levels, thus opposing the action of insulin.
[Probably GLUC(O)- + Greek agōn, present participle of agein, to lead, drive.]
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glucagon
American Heritage Dictionary:
glu·ca·gon |
n.
A hormone produced by the pancreas that stimulates an increase in blood sugar levels, thus opposing the action of insulin.
Related Videos:
glucagon |
McGraw-Hill Science & Technology Encyclopedia:
Glucagon |
The protein hormone secreted by the pancreas which is known to influence a wide variety of metabolic reactions. Glucagon, along with insulin and other hormones, plays a role in the complex and dynamic process of maintaining adequate supplies of sugar in the blood. Glucagon has often been called the hyperglycemic-glycogenolytic factor because it causes the breakdown of liver glycogen to sugar (a process known as glycogenolysis) and thereby increases the concentration of sugar in the bloodstream (a condition known as hyperglycemia). Glucagon may also be involved in the regulation of protein and fat metabolism, gastric acid secretion and gut motility, excretion of electrolytes (such as sodium, potassium and chloride) by the kidney, contractility of heart muscle, and release of insulin from the pancreas. Glucagon is used in human medicine chiefly in certain diabetic conditions when a dangerously low blood sugar must be rapidly raised. See also Carbohydrate metabolism; Diabetes; Glycogen; Hormone; Insulin; Pancreas.
Oxford Food & Nutrition Dictionary:
glucagon |
A hormone secreted by the α-cells of the pancreas which causes an increase in blood sugar by increasing the breakdown of liver glycogen and stimulating the synthesis of glucose from amino acids.
Oxford Food & Fitness Dictionary:
glucagon |
A protein hormone secreted by the pancreas. It has the opposite action to insulin, causing blood glucose levels to rise. Glucagon is secreted in the fasting state to maintain blood glucose levels and mobilize fatty acids. Secretion usually increases during exercise because of the increased need for fuel mobilization, but the response is lower in people who are physically fit. Consequently, blood glucose levels tend to fluctuate less in those who exercise regularly.
Drug Info:
Glucagon |
Brand names: GlucaGen®, Glucagon®
Chemical formula:
- Drug Forms:
- Glucagon Hydrochloride Solution for injection (below)
- Glucagon injection
Glucagon Hydrochloride Solution for injection
What is this medicine?
GLUCAGON (GLOO ka gon) occurs naturally in the body. It increases blood sugar. This medicine is used as an emergency treatment for severely low blood sugar in diabetic patients, especially if they are not able to take sugar by mouth. It is also used as a diagnostic aid in X-ray examinations of the stomach and other digestive organs.
This medicine may be used for other purposes; ask your health care provider or pharmacist if you have questions.
What should I tell my health care provider before I take this medicine?
They need to know if you have any of these conditions:
•pancreatic tumors
•pheochromocytoma
•an unusual or allergic reaction to glucagon, other medicines, foods, dyes, or preservatives
•pregnant or trying to get pregnant
•breast-feeding
How should I use this medicine?
This medicine is for injection into a muscle. You will be taught how to prepare and give this medicine. Instructions for mixing and giving the injection are included in the package. Before an emergency arises, you and the person(s) most likely to give you the injection should read these instructions carefully. Use exactly as directed. Do not take your medicine more often than directed.
It is important that you put your used needles and syringes in a special sharps container. Do not put them in a trash can. If you do not have a sharps container, call your pharmacist or healthcare provider to get one.
Talk to your pediatrician regarding the use of this medicine in children. While this medicine may be prescribed for selected conditions, precautions do apply.
Overdosage: If you think you have taken too much of this medicine contact a poison control center or emergency room at once.
NOTE: This medicine is only for you. Do not share this medicine with others.
What may interact with this medicine?
This medicine is only used during an emergency. Significant drug interactions are not likely during that time.
This list may not describe all possible interactions. Give your health care provider a list of all the medicines, herbs, non-prescription drugs, or dietary supplements you use. Also tell them if you smoke, drink alcohol, or use illegal drugs. Some items may interact with your medicine.
What should I watch for while using this medicine?
If you often have periods of low blood sugar, keep this kit with you at all times. Wear a medical identification bracelet or chain to say you have diabetes, and carry a card that lists all your medications.
Show your family members and others where you keep this kit and how to use it. They need to know how to use it before you need it. They can practice by giving you your normal insulin shots. It is important that they practice. A person who has never given you a shot will probably not be able to do it in an emergency.
Symptoms of low blood sugar vary from person to person. Learn to recognize your own. They can include: confusion, cool, pale skin or cold sweats, drowsiness, extreme hunger, fast heartbeat, headache, nausea, vomiting, nervousness or anxiety, shakiness or unsteadiness, tiredness, weakness, or visual changes. Eat or drink something sweet (fruit juice, honey, soft drinks, sugar or sugar water, or syrup) if you get these symptoms. If you do not feel better, ask someone to help you get to a doctor, health care professional or emergency room right away. Do not attempt to drive yourself. Also, remind the person that he/she may need to give you a glucagon injection before medical treatment is available.
After a response to an injection of glucagon, you should eat or drink some carbohydrates to prevent secondary hypoglycemia.
What side effects may I notice from receiving this medicine?
Side effects that you should report to your doctor or health care professional as soon as possible:
•chest pain or fast, irregular heartbeat
•difficulty breathing
•dizziness or light headedness
•muscle cramps
•unusual weakness
Side effects that usually do not require medical attention (report to your doctor or health care professional if they continue or are bothersome):
•nausea, vomiting
•rash, itching
This list may not describe all possible side effects. Call your doctor for medical advice about side effects. You may report side effects to FDA at 1-800-FDA-1088.
Where should I keep my medicine?
Keep out of the reach of children.
Store at room temperature between 20 and 25 degrees C (68 and 77 degrees F) before mixing the solution. After dissolving the powder in the diluting solution, use it immediately. Do not store for later use. Throw away any unused solution. Throw away the kit after the expiration date.
Last updated: 7/1/2002
Important Disclaimer: The drug information provided here is for educational purposes only. It is intended to supplement, not substitute for, the diagnosis, treatment and advice of a medical professional. This drug information does not cover all possible uses, precautions, side effects and interactions. It should not be construed to indicate that this or any drug is safe for you. Consult your medical professional for guidance before using any prescription or over the counter drugs.
Oxford A-Z of Medicinal Drugs:
glucagon |
A protein hormone secreted by the alpha cells of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas. It acts in opposition to insulin and increases blood glucose by stimulating the breakdown of glycogen to glucose in the liver. Glucagon is used to counteract hypoglycaemia resulting from insulin overdosage in the treatment of diabetes mellitus. It is given by intramuscular, subcutaneous, or intravenous injection and is available on prescription only.
Side effects:
include nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, and low concentrations of potassium in the blood; rarely, allergic reactions may occur.
Precautions:
glucagon must not be given to people with tumours of the insulin- or glucagon-producing cells of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas or to those with phaeochromocytoma (a tumour of the adrenal gland).
Proprietary preparation:
GlucaGen.
| glipizide, glimepiride, gliclazide | |
| gluconolactone, glucosamine, glutaraldehyde |
Oxford Dictionary of Sports Science & Medicine:
glucagon |
A polypeptide hormone secreted by alpha cells of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas. Glucagon increases the conversion of glycogen to glucose, causing blood glucose levels to rise (compare insulin). Glucagon levels generally increase in response to exercise, but this response is lessened by training.
Columbia Encyclopedia:
glucagon |
glucagon (glū'kəgŏn), hormone secreted by the α cells of the islets of Langerhans, specific groups of cells in the pancreas. It tends to counteract the action of insulin, i.e., it raises the concentration of glucose in the blood. Glucagon was first purified and crystallized in 1955; the amino acid sequence of this 29-amino acid polypeptide (see peptide) was published in 1956-57. One of the most important actions of glucagon is the promotion of glycogenolysis, i.e., the degradation of glycogen to glucose, in the liver. Glucagon stimulates adenyl cyclase, the enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of adenosine triphosphate to 3′5′-cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cyclic AMP).
Oxford Dictionary of Biochemistry:
glucagon |
a 29-residue polypeptide hormone synthesized in the A cells of pancreatic islets and mammalian (except human) gastric mucosa. Formerly known as hyperglycemic-glycogenolytic factor (abbr.: HGF), or hyperglycemic factor. The amino-acid sequence is identical in human and all other mammalian glucagons (except guinea-pig):
HSQGTFTSDYSKYLDSRRAQDFVQWLMNT;
It is secreted in response to falling blood glucose levels and raises the glucose concentration in the blood by either (1) stimulation of adenylate cyclase or (2) activation of inositolphospholipid-specific phospholipase C with increase in intracellular Ca2+ concentration. It stimulates glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis in liver, increases lipolysis in adipose tissue, and increases insulin secretion. Three peptides (glucagon itself and glucagon-like peptides 1 and 2 (GLP-1 and -2)) are roughly 50% homologous in sequence. While GLP-1 is the major form in the pancreas, GLP-17 — 36-amide predominates in the intestine. This stimulates insulin secretion and inhibits gastric secretion. Exendin9 — 39 is a GLP-1 receptor antagonist. GLP-1 injected into cerebral ventricles inhibits feeding in the starving rat. This effect is blocked by exendin9 — 39. See also enteroglucagon, glicentin, glucagon receptor, proglucagon.
| glucaemia, gluc+, glp | |
| glucagon receptor, glucagon-like immunoreactant, glucagon-like peptide receptor |
Saunders Veterinary Dictionary:
glucagon |
A polypeptide hormone secreted by the alpha cells of the islets of Langerhans in response to hypoglycemia or to stimulation by growth hormone. It increases blood glucose concentration by stimulating glycogenolysis in the liver and is administered to relieve hypoglycemic coma from any cause, especially hyperinsulinism.
- g. diabetes — glucagon elevates blood glucose levels and may contribute to the severity of diabetes if there is already an insulin deficit but it is not necessary to, nor sufficient for, the development of diabetes.
- g. stimulation test — a provocative test of growth hormone (GH) function in which the fasting serum level of GH is measured before and after administration of glucagon.
- g. tolerance test — evaluates the insulin response to elevation of blood glucose induced by administration of glucagon. Used in diagnosing hyperinsulinism.
Mosby's Dental Dictionary:
glucagon |
(glōō′kəgon)
n
n
(hyperglycemic factor, hyperglycemic-glycogenolytic factor [HGF]) a hormone from the a cells of the pancreas that raises the blood sugar by increasing hepatic glycogenolysis.
Random House Word Menu:
categories related to 'glucagon' |
- Physiology - glucagon: pancreatic hormone that increases blood glucose levels
Wikipedia on Answers.com:
Glucagon |
Glucagon, a hormone secreted by the pancreas, raises blood glucose levels. Its effect is opposite that of insulin, which lowers blood glucose levels.[1] The pancreas releases glucagon when blood sugar (glucose) levels fall too low. Glucagon causes the liver to convert stored glycogen into glucose, which is released into the bloodstream. High blood glucose levels stimulate the release of insulin. Insulin allows glucose to be taken up and used by insulin-dependent tissues. Thus, glucagon and insulin are part of a feedback system that keeps blood glucose levels at a stable level. Glucagon belongs to a family of several other related hormones.
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Contents
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Physiology
Production
The hormone is synthesized and secreted from alpha cells (α-cells) of the islets of Langerhans, which are located in the endocrine portion of the pancreas. In rodents, the alpha cells are located in the outer rim of the islet. Human islet structure is much less segregated, and alpha cells are distributed throughout the islet.
Regulation
Secretion of glucagon is stimulated by:
- Hypoglycemia
- Epinephrine (via β2, α2,[2] and α1[3] adrenergic receptors)
- Arginine
- Alanine (often from muscle-derived pyruvate/glutamate transamination (see alanine transaminase reaction).
- Acetylcholine[4]
- Cholecystokinin
Secretion of glucagon is inhibited by:
- Somatostatin
- Insulin (via GABA)[5]
- Increased free fatty acids and keto acids into the blood
- Increased urea production
Function
Glucagon generally elevates the amount of glucose in the blood by promoting hepatic gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis.
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| Clinical data | |
| Pregnancy cat. | ? |
| Legal status | ? |
| Identifiers | |
| ATC code | ? |
| PubChem | CID 16186314 |
| ChemSpider | 10481928  |
| UNII | 76LA80IG2G |
| ChEMBL | CHEMBL266481  |
| Chemical data | |
| Formula | ? |
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Glucose is stored in the liver in the form of glycogen, which is a starch-like polymer chain made up of glucose molecules. Liver cells (hepatocytes) have glucagon receptors. When glucagon binds to the glucagon receptors, the liver cells convert the glycogen polymer into individual glucose molecules, and release them into the bloodstream, in a process known as glycogenolysis. As these stores become depleted, glucagon then encourages the liver to synthesize additional glucose by gluconeogenesis. Glucagon turns off glycolysis in the liver, causing glycolytic intermediates to be shuttled to gluconeogenesis.
Glucagon also regulates the rate of glucose production through lipolysis.
Glucagon production appears to be dependent on the central nervous system through pathways yet to be defined. In invertebrate animals, eyestalk removal has been reported to affect glucagon production. Excising the eyestalk in young crayfish produces glucagon-induced hyperglycemia.[6]
Mechanism of action
Glucagon binds to the glucagon receptor, a G protein-coupled receptor, located in the plasma membrane. The conformation change in the receptor activates G proteins, a heterotrimeric protein with α, β, and γ subunits. When the G protein interacts with the receptor, it undergoes a conformational change that results in the replacement of the GDP molecule that was bound to the α subunit with a GTP molecule. This substitution results in the releasing of the α subunit from the β and γ subunits. The alpha subunit specifically activates the next enzyme in the cascade, adenylate cyclase.
Adenylate cyclase manufactures cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cyclic AMP or cAMP), which activates protein kinase A (cAMP-dependent protein kinase). This enzyme, in turn, activates phosphorylase kinase, which, in turn, phosphorylates glycogen phosphorylase, converting into the active form called phosphorylase A. Phosphorylase A is the enzyme responsible for the release of glucose-1-phosphate from glycogen polymers.
History
In the 1920s, Kimball and Murlin studied pancreatic extracts, and found an additional substance with hyperglycemic properties. They described glucagon in 1923.[7] The amino acid sequence of glucagon was described in the late 1950s.[8] A more complete understanding of its role in physiology and disease was not established until the 1970s, when a specific radioimmunoassay was developed.
Etymology
Glucagon was named in 1923, probably from the Greek γλυκός sweet, and ἄγειν to drive.[9]
Structure
Glucagon is a 29-amino acid polypeptide. Its primary structure in humans is: NH2-His-Ser-Gln-Gly-Thr-Phe-Thr-Ser-Asp-Tyr-Ser-Lys-Tyr-Leu-Asp-Ser-Arg-Arg-Ala-Gln-Asp-Phe-Val-Gln-Trp-Leu-Met-Asn-Thr-COOH.
The polypeptide has a molecular weight of 3485 daltons. Glucagon is a peptide (nonsteroid) hormone.
Glucagon is generated from the cleavage of proglucagon secreted by pancreatic islet α cells. In intestinal L cells, proglucagon is cleaved to the alternate products glicentin, GLP-1 (an incretin), IP-2, and GLP-2 (promotes intestinal growth).
Pathology
Abnormally-elevated levels of glucagon may be caused by pancreatic tumors, such as glucagonoma, symptoms of which include necrolytic migratory erythema, reduced amino acids, and hyperglycemia. It may occur alone or in the context of multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1.
Uses & Contraindications
An injectable form of glucagon is vital first aid in cases of severe hypoglycemia when the victim is unconscious or for other reasons cannot take glucose orally. The dose for an adult is typically 1 milligram, and the glucagon is given by intramuscular, intravenous or subcutaneous injection, and quickly raises blood glucose levels. Glucagon can also be administered intravenously at 0.25 - 0.5 unit. To use the injectable form, it must be reconstituted prior to use, a step that requires a sterile diluent to be injected into a vial containing powdered glucagon, because the hormone is highly unstable when dissolved in solution. When dissolved in a fluid state, glucagon can form amyloid fibrils, or tightly woven chains of proteins made up of the individual glucagon peptides, and once glucagon begins to fibrilize, it becomes useless when injected, as the glucagon cannot be absorbed and used by the body. The reconstitution process makes using glucagon cumbersome, although there are a number of products now in development from a number of companies that aim to make the product easier to use.
Anecdotal evidence suggests a benefit of higher doses of glucagon in the treatment of overdose with beta blockers; the likely mechanism of action is the increase of cAMP in the myocardium, in effect bypassing the β-adrenergic second messenger system.[10]
Glucagon acts very quickly; common side-effects include headache and nausea.
Drug interactions: Glucagon interacts only with oral anticoagulants, increasing the tendency to bleed.
While Glucagon can be used clinically to treat various forms of hypoglycemia, it is severely contraindicated in patients with pheochromocytoma, as the drug interaction with elevated levels of adrenaline produced by the tumor may produce an exponential increase in blood sugar levels, leading to a hyperglycemic state, which may incur a fatal elevation in blood pressure.[11] Likewise, an insulinoma may lead to a hypoglycemic state, owing to glucagon's agonist action with regards to insulin release.[11]
Media
See also
- Insulin
- Diabetes mellitus
- Proglucagon
- Glucagon-like peptide-1
- Glucagon-like peptide-2
- Islets of Langerhans
- Pancreas
- Cortisol
References
- ^ Reece J, Campbell N (2002). Biology. San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings. ISBN 0-8053-6624-5.
- ^ Layden, B. T., Durai, V. & Lowe, Jr., W. L. (2010) G-Protein-Coupled Receptors, Pancreatic Islets, and Diabetes. Nature Education 3(9):13
- ^ Skoglund, G.; Lundquist, I.; Ahrén, B. (1987). "Α1- and α2-adrenoceptor activation increases plasma glucagon levels in the mouse". European Journal of Pharmacology 143 (1): 83–88. doi:10.1016/0014-2999(87)90737-0. PMID 2891547.
- ^ Honey, R. N.; WEIRf, G. C. (1980). "Acetylcholine Stimulates Insulin, Glucagon, and Somatostatin Release in the Perfused Chicken Pancreas". Endocrinology 107 (4): 1065–1068. doi:10.1210/endo-107-4-1065. ISSN 0013-7227.
- ^ Xu E, Kumar M, Zhang Y, Ju W, Obata T, Zhang N, Liu S, Wendt A, Deng S, Ebina Y, Wheeler MB, Braun M, Wang Q (January 2006). "Intra-islet insulin suppresses glucagon release via GABA-GABAA receptor system". Cell Metab. 3 (1): 47–58. doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2005.11.015. PMID 16399504.
- ^ Leinen RL, Giannini AJ (1983). "Effect of eyestalk removal on glucagon induced hyperglycemia in crayfish". Society for Neuroscience Abstracts 9: 604.
- ^ Kimball C, Murlin J (1923). "Aqueous extracts of pancreas III. Some precipitation reactions of insulin". J. Biol. Chem. 58 (1): 337–348. http://www.jbc.org/cgi/reprint/58/1/337.
- ^ Bromer W, Winn L, Behrens O (1957). "The amino acid sequence of glucagon V. Location of amide groups, acid degradation studies and summary of sequential evidence.". J. Am. Chem. Soc. 79 (11): 2807–2810. doi:10.1021/ja01568a038.
- ^ glucagon on dictionary.com
- ^ White CM (May 1999). "A review of potential cardiovascular uses of intravenous glucagon administration". J Clin Pharmacol 39 (5): 442–7. PMID 10234590.
- ^ a b "Information for the Physician: Glucagon for Injection (rDNA origin)". Eli Lilly and Company. http://pi.lilly.com/us/rglucagon-pi.pdf. Retrieved 2011-11-19.
Further reading
- Kieffer TJ, Habener JF (2000). "The glucagon-like peptides". Endocr. Rev. 20 (6): 876–913. doi:10.1210/er.20.6.876. PMID 10605628.
- Drucker DJ (2003). "Glucagon-like peptides: regulators of cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis". Mol. Endocrinol. 17 (2): 161–71. doi:10.1210/me.2002-0306. PMID 12554744.
- Jeppesen PB (2004). "Clinical significance of GLP-2 in short-bowel syndrome". J. Nutr. 133 (11): 3721–4. PMID 14608103.
- Brubaker PL, Anini Y (2004). "Direct and indirect mechanisms regulating secretion of glucagon-like peptide-1 and glucagon-like peptide-2". Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 81 (11): 1005–12. doi:10.1139/y03-107. PMID 14719035.
- Baggio LL, Drucker DJ (2005). "Clinical endocrinology and metabolism. Glucagon-like peptide-1 and glucagon-like peptide-2". Best Pract. Res. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 18 (4): 531–54. doi:10.1016/j.beem.2004.08.001. PMID 15533774.
- Holz GG, Chepurny OG (2006). "Diabetes Outfoxed by GLP-1?". Sci. STKE 2005 (268): pe2. doi:10.1126/stke.2682005pe2. PMC 2909599. PMID 15671479. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2909599.
- Dunning BE, Foley JE, Ahrén B (2006). "Alpha cell function in health and disease: influence of glucagon-like peptide-1". Diabetologia 48 (9): 1700–13. doi:10.1007/s00125-005-1878-0. PMID 16132964.
- Gautier JF, Fetita S, Sobngwi E, Salaün-Martin C (2005). "Biological actions of the incretins GIP and GLP-1 and therapeutic perspectives in patients with type 2 diabetes". Diabetes Metab. 31 (3 Pt 1): 233–42. doi:10.1016/S1262-3636(07)70190-8. PMID 16142014.
- De León DD, Crutchlow MF, Ham JY, Stoffers DA (2006). "Role of glucagon-like peptide-1 in the pathogenesis and treatment of diabetes mellitus". Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol. 38 (5–6): 845–59. doi:10.1016/j.biocel.2005.07.011. PMID 16202636.
- Beglinger C, Degen L (2007). "Gastrointestinal satiety signals in humans--physiologic roles for GLP-1 and PYY?". Physiol. Behav. 89 (4): 460–4. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2006.05.048. PMID 16828127.
- Stephens JW, Bain SC (2007). "Safety and adverse effects associated with GLP-1 analogues". Expert opinion on drug safety 6 (4): 417–22. doi:10.1517/14740338.6.4.417. PMID 17688385.
- Orskov C, Bersani M, Johnsen AH, et al. (1989). "Complete sequences of glucagon-like peptide-1 from human and pig small intestine". J. Biol. Chem. 264 (22): 12826–9. PMID 2753890.
- Drucker DJ, Asa S (1988). "Glucagon gene expression in vertebrate brain". J. Biol. Chem. 263 (27): 13475–8. PMID 2901414.
- Novak U, Wilks A, Buell G, McEwen S (1987). "Identical mRNA for preproglucagon in pancreas and gut". Eur. J. Biochem. 164 (3): 553–8. doi:10.1111/j.1432-1033.1987.tb11162.x. PMID 3569278.
- White JW, Saunders GF (1986). "Structure of the human glucagon gene". Nucleic Acids Res. 14 (12): 4719–30. doi:10.1093/nar/14.12.4719. PMC 311486. PMID 3725587. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=311486.
- Schroeder WT, Lopez LC, Harper ME, Saunders GF (1984). "Localization of the human glucagon gene (GCG) to chromosome segment 2q36----37". Cytogenet. Cell Genet. 38 (1): 76–9. doi:10.1159/000132034. PMID 6546710.
- Bell GI, Sanchez-Pescador R, Laybourn PJ, Najarian RC (1983). "Exon duplication and divergence in the human preproglucagon gene". Nature 304 (5924): 368–71. doi:10.1038/304368a0. PMID 6877358.
- Kärgel HJ, Dettmer R, Etzold G, et al. (1982). "Action of rat liver cathepsin L on glucagon". Acta Biol. Med. Ger. 40 (9): 1139–43. PMID 7340337.
- Wayman GA, Impey S, Wu Z, et al. (1994). "Synergistic activation of the type I adenylyl cyclase by Ca2+ and Gs-coupled receptors in vivo". J. Biol. Chem. 269 (41): 25400–5. PMID 7929237.
- Unson CG, Macdonald D, Merrifield RB (1993). "The role of histidine-1 in glucagon action". Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 300 (2): 747–50. doi:10.1006/abbi.1993.1103. PMID 8382034.
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Related topics:
 | hyperglucagonemia |
| hypoglucagonemia |
| gluco– (prefix) |
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