Golden Horde

The Mongol army that swept over eastern Europe in the 13th century and established a suzerain in Russia.

[From the golden tent of their commander.]

For more information on Golden Horde, visit Britannica.com.

An anachronistic and misleading term for an area more appropriately called the Ulus of Jochi or Khanate of Qipchaq (although Arabic sources at times refer to it as the Ulus of Batu or Ulus of Berke).

In Russian sources contemporary to the existence of the Golden Horde, the term Orda alone was used to apply to the camp or palace, and later to the capital city, where the khan resided. The term Zolotaya Orda, which has been translated as "Golden Horde," first appears in Russian sources of the late sixteenth to early seventeenth centuries, many decades after the end of the Qipchaq Khanate. In a travel account of 1624 concerning a journey he took to Persia, the merchant Fedot Afanasievich Kotov describes coming to the lower Volga River: "Here by the river Akhtuba [i.e., the eastern effluent of the Volga] stands the Zolotaya Orda. The khan's court, palaces, and [other] courts, and mosques are all made of stone. But now all these buildings are being dismantled and the stone is being taken to Astrakhan." Zolotaya Orda can be understood here to mean the capital city of the Qipchaq Khanate. Of the two capitals of that khanate - Old Sarai or New Sarai (referred to in the historiography as Sarai Batu and Sarai Berke, respectively) - Kotov's description most likely refers to New Sarai at the present-day Tsarev archaeological site.

In the History of the Kazan Khanate (Kazanskaya istoriya), which some scholars date to the second half of the sixteenth century and others to the early seventeenth century, the term Zolotaya Orda (or Zlataya Orda) appears at least fifteen times. Most of these references seem to be to the capital city - that is, where the khan's court was - but some can by extension be understood to apply to the entire area ruled by the khan. The problem with accepting the reliability of this work is its genre, which seems to be historical fiction. Given the popularity of the History of the Kazan Khanate (the text is extant in more than two hundred manuscript copies), one can understand how the term Golden Horde became a popular term of reference. It is more difficult to understand why.

Neither Kotov nor the author of the History of the Kazan' Khanate explains why he is using the term Golden Horde. It does not conform to the steppe color-direction system, such that black equals north, blue equals east, red equals south, white equals west, and yellow (or gold) equals center. The Qipchaq Khanate was not at the center of the Mongol Empire but at its western extremity, so one should expect the term White Horde, which does occur, although rarely, in sources contemporary to its existence. Even then the term seems to apply only to the khanate's western half, while the term Blue Horde identifies its eastern half. One could refer to the palace or the camp of any khan as "golden" in the sense that it was at the "center" of the khanate, but in no other case is it used to refer to a khanate as a whole.

In the eighteenth century, Princess Yekaterina Dashkova suggested that the term Golden Horde was applied to the Qipchaq Khanate "because it possessed great quantities of gold and the weapons of its people were decorated with it." But this conjecture seems to fall into the realm of folk etymology. Others have suggested that the term refers to the golden pavilion of the khan, or at least a tent covered with golden tiles (as the fourteenth-century traveler Ibn Battuta described the domicile of Khan (Özbek). Yet khans in other khanates had similar tents or pavilions at the time, so there was nothing that would make this a distinguishing trait of the Qipchaq khan or of his khanate, let alone a reason to call the khanate "golden." George Vernadsky proposed that Golden Horde may have been applied to the Khanate of Qipchaq (or Great Horde) only after the separation of the Crimean Khanate and Kazan Khanate from it in the mid-fifteenth century. It would have occupied, accordingly, a central or "golden" position between the two. Yet, neither of the other khanates, in the evidence available, was designated white or blue (or red or black) as would then be expected.

This leaves three intractable considerations: (1) there is no evidence that the Qipchaq Khanate was ever referred to as "Golden Horde" during the time of its existence; (2) the earliest appearance of the term in a nonfictional work is one written more than a hundred years after the khanate's demise and refers specifically to the capital city where the khan resided, not to the khanate as a whole; and (3) no better reason offers itself for calling the Qipchaq Khanate the Golden Horde than an apparent mistake in a late sixteenth-or early seventeenth-century Muscovite work of fiction.

The Khanate of Qipchaq was set up by Batu (d. 1255) in the 1240s after the return of the Mongol force that invaded central Europe. Batu thus became the first khan of a khanate that was a multiethnic conglomeration consisting of Qipchaqs (Polovtsi), Kangli, Alans, Circassians, Rus, Armenians, Greeks, Volga Bulgars, Khwarezmians, and others, including no more than 4000 Mongols who ruled over them. Economically, it was made up of nomadic pastoralists, sedentary agriculturalists, and urban dwellers, including merchants, artisans, and craftsmen. The territory of the khanate at its greatest expanse reached from Galicia and Lithuania in the west to present-day Mongolia and China in the east, and from Transcaucasia and Khwarezm in the south into the forest zone of the Rus principalities and western Siberia in the north. Some scholars dispute whether the Rus principalities were ever officially part of the Qipchaq Khanate or merely vassal states. These scholars cite the account of the fourteenth-century Arabic historian al-Umari to the effect that the Khanate consisted of four parts: Sarai, the Crimea, Khwarezm, and the Desht-i Qipchaq (the western Eurasian steppe). Since most Rus principalities were not in the steppe but in the forest zone north of the steppe, they would seem to be excluded. Other scholars argue that not too fine a point should be put on what al-Umari understood as the northern limit of the Desht-i Qipchaq, for, according to Juvaini, Jochi, the son of Chinghis Khan and father of Batu, was granted all lands to the west of the Irtysh River "as far in that direction as the hooves of Tatar horses trod," which would seem to include the Rus principalities conquered in campaigns between 1237 and 1240. In addition, a number of Rus sources refer to the Rus principalities as ulus of the khan.

The governmental structure of the Qipchaq Khanate was most likely the same as that of other steppe khanates and was led by a ruler called a "khan" who could trace his genealogical lineage back to Chinghis Khan. A divan of qarachi beys (called ulus beys in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries), made up of four emirs, each of whom headed one of the major chiefdoms, constituted a council of state that regularly advised the khan. The divan's consent was required for all significant enterprises on the part of the government. All important documents concerning internal matters had to be countersigned (usually by means of a seal) by the qarachi beys for them to go into effect. Their witnessing was also required for all agreements with foreign powers to become official. The khan was not allowed to meet with foreign ambassadors without the presence of the qarachi beys, as representatives of the major chiefdoms. At times an assembly called a quriltai advised the khan but could also be called to choose a new khan or depose the reigning khan. Notable men from the ruling class made up the quriltai, and this included the khan's relatives and retinue, religious leaders, and other members of the nobility from the ruling class's lower ranks. The government was set up on a dual-administrative basis with a vizier in charge of civilian administration, including record-keeping and the treasury. The beklaribek (head of the qarachi beys) presided over military administration. The clan of each qarachi bey held the highest social and political status within its chiefdom, with people of every social status in descending order down to slaves beneath.

Six of the early khans of the Qipchaq Khanate were sky worshipers, the traditional religion of the Mongols. One of these khans, Sartaq (r. 1256 - 1257), may have been a Nestorian Christian and another, Berke (r. 1257 - 1267), was Muslim. But all the early khans followed policies of religious toleration. In the early fourteenth century, Khan Özbek (r. 1313 - 1341) converted to Islam, which from then on became the official religion of the elite of the Khanate and spread to most of the rest of the population. The Rus principalities, however, remained Christian, since the Rus Church enjoyed the protection of the khans as long as the Rus clergy prayed for the well-being of the khan and his family.

The Qipchaq Khanate had extensive diplomatic dealings with foreign powers, both as part of the Mongol Empire and independently. It maintained agreements with the Byzantine Empire and Mamluk Egypt. It fought incessantly with the Ilkhanate and maintained alternating periods of agreement and conflict with the Grand Dukes of Lithuania. It maintained extensive commercial dealings with Byzantium, Egypt, Genoa, Pisa, and Venice to the west, as well as with the other Mongol khanates and China to the east. During the fourteenth century, a high Islamic Turkic culture emerged in the Qipchaq Khanate.

At the end of the thirteenth century, the Qipchaq Khanate survived a devastating civil war between Khan Tokhta and the Prince Nogai. After the assassination of Khan Berdibek in 1359, the khanate went through more than 20 years of turmoil and endured another devastating civil war, this time between Khan Tokhtamish and the Emir Mamai. In 1395 Tamerlane swept through the khanate, defeated the army of Tokhtamish, and razed the capital cities. In the middle of the fifteenth century the Qipchaq Khanate began to split up, with the Crimean Khanate and Kazan Khanate separating off. Finally in 1502, the Crimean Khan Mengli Girey defeated the last khan of the Qipchaq Khanate, absorbed the western part of the khanate into his domains, and allowed the organization of the Khanate of Astrakhan to govern the rest. The Qipchaq Khanate, nonetheless, had lasted far longer as an independent political entity than any of the other ulus granted by Chinghis Khan to his sons.

Bibliography

Fedorov-Davydov, G. A. (1984). The Culture of the Golden Horde Cities, tr. H. Bartlett Wells. Oxford: B.A.R.

Fedorov-Davydov, G. A. (2001). The Silk Road and the Cities of the Golden Horde. Berkeley, CA: Zinat Press.

Halperin, Charles J. (1985). Russia and the Golden Horde: Mongol Impact on Medieval Russian History. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Schamiloglu, Uli. (1986). "Tribal Politics and Social Organization in the Golden Horde." Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, New York.

Schamiloglu, Uli. (2002). "The Golden Horde." In The Turks, 6 vols., ed. Hasan Celâl Güzel, C. Cem Oguz, and Osman Karatay, 2:819 - 835. Ankara: Yeni Türkiye.

Vernadsky, George. (1953). The Mongols and Russia. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

—DONALD OSTROWSKI

This article is about the XIII-century Mongol khanate. For the Irish rock band, see The Golden Horde (band). For the 1951 film, see The Golden Horde (film).

Алтан Орд Altan Ord Altın Urda Golden Horde The Ulus of Jochi Зүчийн улс ← 1240s–1502 ↓ The Golden Horde (green), c. 1300. Capital Sarai Batu Language(s) Mongolic & Turkic languages Religion Shamanism, and later Islam Government Semi-elective monarchy, later hereditary monarchy Khan  - 1226-1280 Orda Khan (White Horde)  - 1242-1255 Batu Khan (Blue Horde)  - 1379-1395 Tokhtamysh  - 1435-1459 Küchük Muhammad (Great Horde)  - 1481-1499 Murtada Legislature Kurultai Historical era Late Middle Ages  - Established after the Mongol invasion of Rus' 1240s  - Blue Horde and White Horde united 1379  - Disintegrated into Great Horde 1466  - Last remnant subjugated by the Crimean Khanate 1502 Preceded by Succeeded by Mongol Empire Crimean Khanate Qasim Khanate Khanate of Kazan Kazakh Khanate Uzbek Khanate Astrakhan Khanate Khanate of Sibir

The Ulus of Jochi or the Golden Horde (Mongolian: Алтан Орд, Altan Ord; Tatar: Алтын Урда, Altın Urda; Russian: Золотая Орда, Zolotaya Orda) is an East Slavic designation for the Mongol^[1][2][3]—later Turkicized^[4]—Muslim^[5] khanate established in the western part of the Mongol Empire after the Mongol invasion of Rus' in the 1240s: present-day Russia, Ukraine, Moldova, Kazakhstan, and the Caucasus. Also known as Jochi ulus^[4] or Kipchak Khanate (not to be confused with the earlier Kipchak khanate prior to its conquest by the Mongols), the territory of the Golden Horde at its peak included most of Eastern Europe from the Urals to the right banks of the Dnieper River, extending east deep into Siberia. On the south, the Golden Horde's lands bordered on the Black Sea, the Caucasus Mountains, and the territories of the Mongol dynasty known as the Ilkhanate.^[4]

The origins of the name "Golden Horde" is uncertain. Some scholars believe that it refers to the camp of Batu and the later rulers of the Horde. In Mongolian, Altan Orda refers to the golden camp or palace (Mongolian: Алтан Ордон, Altan Ordon = Golden Palace). Altan (golden) was also the color connoting imperial status. Other sources mention that Batu had a golden tent, and it is from this that the Golden Horde received its name. While this legend is persistent, no one is positive of the origin of the term. In most contemporary sources, the Golden Horde was referred to as the Khanate of the Qipchaq, as the Qipchaq Turks comprised the majority of the nomadic population in the region (the Ulus Jochid).^[3]

Contents 1 Mongol origins 2 Golden Age 2.1 Internal organization 2.2 Vassals and allies 3 Political evolution 4 Disintegration and fall 5 Provinces 6 Reference and notes 7 Further reading 8 See also 9 External links

Mongol origins

Main articles: Mongol invasion of Rus' and Mongol Empire

Destruction of Suzdal by the Mongol armies. From the medieval Russian annals

At his death, Genghis Khan divided the Mongol Empire amongst his four sons. Jochi was the eldest, but he died six months before Genghis (his paternity was also in doubt). The westernmost lands occupied by the Mongols, which included southern Russia and Kazakhstan, were given to his eldest sons: Batu, who eventually became the ruler of the Blue Horde; and Orda, who became the leader of the White Horde.^[6][7] In 1235, Batu with the great general Subedei began an invasion westwards, first conquering the Bashkirs and then moving on to Volga Bulgaria in 1236. From here, in 1237, he conquered the southern steppes of the Ukraine, forcing the Cumans to flee westwards. Moving north, Batu began the Mongol invasion of Rus' and for three years subjugated the principalities Kievan State, whilst his cousins Möngke, Kadan and Guyuk moved southwards into Alania.

Using the migration of the Cumans as his casus belli, Batu's Horde, with an assortment of brothers and cousins, including Shiban, Orda, Kadan and future khagan Möngke Khan, continued west, raiding Poland and Hungary and culminating in the Battles of Legnica and Muhi. In 1241, however, the Great Khan Ögedei died in Mongolia. Batu turned back from his siege of Vienna to take part in disputing the succession. The Mongol armies would never again travel so far west. In 1242, after retreating through Hungary (destroying Pest in the process), and subjugating Bulgaria,^[8] Batu established his capital at Sarai, commanding the lower stretch of the Volga River, on the site of the Khazarian capital of Atil. Shortly before that, Batu and Orda's younger brother Shiban left Batu's army and was given his own enormous ulus east of the Ural Mountains along the Ob and Irtysh Rivers.

After Möngke Khan died in 1259, the succession war between Kublai Khan and Ariq Böke essentially marked the end of a united Mongol Empire. The war between Golden Horde under Berke Khan and Ilkhanate under Hulagu Khan, the Berke-Hulagu war, soon broke out in 1262. The Golden Horde became a virtually independent state thereafter. Although Uzbeg Khan Islamicized the Horde in 1315 and used the Mongolian language as the only diplomatic language, Mongolian script was used by khans until the late 14th century. It is known that Janibeg wrote a letter in Mongolian to Egypt and Tokhta, and Tokhtamysh minted coins with Mongolian script.^[9] After the overthrow of their nominal suzerain Yuan Emperor Toghan Temur,^[10] the Golden Horde lost touch with Mongolia and China.^[11]

Golden Age

The people of the Golden Horde were largely a mixture of Turks and Mongols who early adopted Islam.^[12] Most of the Horde's population was Turkic: Kypchaks, Volga Tatars, Khwarezmians, and others. The Horde was gradually Turkified and lost its Mongol identity, while the descendants of Batu's original Mongol warriors constituted the upper class.^[13] They were commonly named the Tatars by the Russians and Europeans. Russians preserved this common name for this group down to the 20th century. Whereas most members of this group identified themselves by their ethnic or tribal names, some also considered themselves to be Muslims. Most of the population, both agricultural and nomadic, adopted the Kypchak language, which developed into the regional languages of Kypchak group after the Horde disintegrated.

The descendants of Batu ruled the Golden Horde from Sarai Batu and later Sarai Berke, controlling an area ranging from the Volga River and Carpathian mountains to the mouth of the Danube River. The descendants of Orda ruled the area from the Ural River to Lake Balkhash. Censuses recorded Chinese living quarters in the Tatar parts of Novgorod, Tver and Moscow.

The poem on bark, which is known as Golden Horde papyrus, is one of commemorative remnants of Khanate culture. The poem is written in Mongolian in early 14th century. It is about a warrior and his mother who missed each other and brought on constant warfare.

Internal organization

A 13th century cup produced in the Golden Horde.

The Horde's supreme ruler was the khan, chosen by the kurultai among Batu Khan's descendants. The prime minister, also ethnically Mongol, was known as "prince of princes", or beklare-bek. The ministers were called viziers. Local governors, or basqaqs, were responsible for levying taxes and dealing with popular discontent. Civil and military administration, as a rule, were not separate.

The Horde developed as a sedentary rather than nomadic culture, with Sarai evolving into a large, prosperous metropolis. In the early 14th century, the capital was moved considerably upstream to Sarai Berqe, which became one of the largest cities of the medieval world, with 600,000 inhabitants.^[14]

Despite Russian efforts at proselytizing in Sarai, the Mongols clung to their traditional animist or shamanist beliefs until Uzbeg Khan (1312-41) adopted Islam as a state religion. Several rulers of Kievan Rus - Mikhail of Chernigov and Mikhail of Tver among them - were reportedly assassinated in Sarai, but the khans were generally tolerant and even released the Russian Orthodox Church from paying taxes.

Vassals and allies

The Horde exacted tax payments from its subject peoples - Russians, Armenians, Georgians, Circassians, Alans, Crimean Greeks, Crimean Goths, and others (Balkan Bulgars and Serbs). The territories of Christian subjects were regarded as peripheral areas of little interest as long as they continued to pay taxes. These vassal states were never incorporated into the Horde, and Russian rulers early obtained the privilege of collecting the Tatar tax themselves. To maintain control over Russia, Tatar warlords carried out regular punitive raids on most Russian principalities (most dangerous in 1252, 1293, 1382).

There is a point of view, much propagated by Lev Gumilev, that the Horde and Russian polities entered into a defensive alliance against the fanatical Teutonic knights and pagan Lithuanians. Proponents point to the fact that the Mongol court was frequented by Russian princes, notably Yaroslavl's Feodor the Black, who boasted his own ulus near Sarai, and Novgorod's Alexander Nevsky, the sworn brother of Batu's successor Sartaq Khan. A Mongol contingent supported the Novgorodians in the Battle of the Ice and Novgorodians paid taxes to the Horde.

Sarai carried on a brisk trade with the Genoese trade emporiums on the coast of the Black Sea - Soldaia, Caffa, and Azak. Mamluk Egypt was the khans' long-standing trade partner and ally in the Mediterranean. Berke, the khan of Kipchak had drawn up an alliance with the Mamluk Sultan Baibars against Ilkhanate in 1261.^[15]

Political evolution

After Batu's death in 1255, the prosperity of his empire lasted for a full century, until the assassination of Jani Beg in 1357, though the intrigues of Nogai did invoke a partial civil war in the late 1290s. The Horde's military clout peaked during the reign of Uzbeg (1312-41), whose army exceeded 300,000 warriors.

Their Russian policy was one of constantly switching alliances in an attempt to keep Russia weak and divided. In the 14th century, the rise of Lithuania in Northeast Europe posed a challenge to Tatar control over Russia. Thus Uzbeg Khan began backing Moscow as the leading Russian state. Ivan I Kalita was granted the title of grand prince and given the right to collect taxes from other Russian potentates.

Statute of Batu Khan in Turkey

Disintegration and fall

Tokhtamysh's invasion of Russia in 1382.

The Black Death of the 1340s was a major factor contributing to the Golden Horde's downfall. Following the disastrous rule of Jani Beg and his subsequent assassination, the empire fell into a long civil war, averaging one new Khan per annum for the next few decades. (Orda's White Horde carried on generally free from trouble until the late 1370's). By the 1380s, Khwarezm, Astrakhan, and Muscovy attempted to break free of the Horde's power, while the lower reaches of the Dnieper were annexed by Lithuania after its decisive victory in the Battle of Blue Waters and Poland in 1368. (The eastern principalities were generally annexed with little resistance).

Mamai, a Tatar general who did not formally hold the throne, attempted to reassert Tatar authority over Russia. His army was defeated by Dmitri Donskoi at the Battle of Kulikovo in his second consecutive victory over the Tatars. Mamai soon fell from power.

In 1378, Tokhtamysh, a descendant of Orda Khan and ruler of the White Horde, invaded and annexed the territory of the Blue Horde, briefly reestablishing the Golden Horde as a dominant regional power. After Mamai's defeat, Tokhtamysh tried to restore the dominance of the Golden Horde over Russia by attacking Russian lands in 1382. He besieged Moscow on August 23, but Muscovites beat off his storm, using firearms for the first time in Russian history.^[16] On August 26, two sons of Tokhtamysh's supporter Dmitry of Suzdal, dukes of Suzdal and Nizhny Novgorod Vasily and Semyon, who were present in Tokhtamysh's forces, persuaded Muscovites to open the city gates, promising that forces would not harm the city in this case.^[17] This allowed Tokhtamysh's troops to burst in and destroy Moscow, killing 24,000 people.^[18]

The domains of the Golden Horde in 1389 before the Tokhtamysh-Timur war, with modern international boundaries in light brown. The Principality of Moscow is shown as a dependency, in light yellow.

A fatal blow to the Horde was dealt by Tamerlane, who annihilated Tokhtamysh's army, destroyed his capital, looted the Crimean trade centers, and deported the most skillful craftsmen to his own capital in Samarkand.

In the first decades of the 15th century, power was wielded by Edigu, a vizier who routed Vytautas of Lithuania in the great Battle of the Vorskla River and established the Nogai Horde as his personal demesne. In the 1440s, the Horde was again wracked by civil war. This time, it broke up into separate Khanates: Qasim Khanate, Khanate of Kazan, Khanate of Astrakhan, Kazakh Khanate, Uzbek Khanate, and Khanate of Crimea all seceding from the last remnant of the Golden Horde - the Great Horde.

None of these new Khanates was stronger than Muscovite Russia, which finally broke free of Tatar control by 1480. Each Khanate was eventually annexed by it, starting with Kazan and Astrakhan in the 1550s. By the end of the century, the Siberia Khanate was also part of Russia. descendants of its ruling khans entered Russian service.

In the summer of 1470 (other sources give 1469), Ahmed Khan organized an attack against Moldavia, the Kingdom of Poland, and Lithuania. By August 20th, the Moldavian forces under Stephen the Great defeated the Tatars at the Battle of Lipnic. The Kingdom of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania (which possessed much of the Ukraine at the time) were attacked in 1487-1491 by the remains of the Golden Horde. They reached as far as Lublin in central Poland before being decisively beaten at Zaslavl.^[19]

The Crimean Khanate became a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire in 1475 and subjugated what remained of the Great Horde by 1502. Crimean Tatars wreaked havoc in southern Russia, Ukraine and even Poland in the course of the 16th and early 17th centuries, but they were not able to defeat Russia or take Moscow. Under Ottoman protection, the Khanate of Crimea continued its precarious existence until Catherine the Great annexed it on April 8, 1783. It was by far the longest-lived of the successor states to the Golden Horde.

Provinces

The Mongols favored decimal organization which was inherited from Chingis Khan. It is said that there were a total of 10 political divisions or provinces within the Golden Horde.

• Khorazm,
• Desht-i-Kipchak,
• Khazaria,
• Crimea,
• the Banks of Azov,
• the country of Circassians,
• Bulgar,
• Walachia,
• Alania,
• Russian lands.^[20]

Reference and notes

History of Mongolia

Before Genghis Khan

Mongol Empire

Khanates

- Chagatai Khanate

- Golden Horde

- Ilkhanate

- Yuan Dynasty

Northern Yuan

Timurid Empire

Mughal Empire

Crimean Khanate

Khanate of Sibir

Zunghar Khanate

Qing Dynasty (Mongolia during Qing)

Republic of China

Mongolian People's Republic (Outer Mongolia)

Modern Mongolia

Mengjiang (Inner Mongolia)

People's Republic of China (Inner Mongolia)

Buryat Mongolia

Kalmyk Mongolia

Hazara Mongols

Aimak Mongols

Timeline

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1. ^ G. Vernadsky, M. Karpovich: The Mongols and Russia, Yale University Press, 1953
2. ^ "Empire of the Golden Horde", The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, 2001-05.
3. ^ ^{a b} T. May, "Khanate of the Golden Horde", North Georgia College and State University.
4. ^ ^{a b c} "Golden Horde", in Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2007. Quotation: "also called Kipchak Khanate Russian designation for the Ulus Juchi, the western part of the Mongol Empire, which flourished from the mid-13th century to the end of the 14th century. The people of the Golden Horde were a mixture of Turks and Mongols, with the latter generally constituting the aristocracy."
5. ^ Russia and the Golden Horde: The Mongol Impact on Medieval Russian History By Charles J. Halperin, pg. 111
6. ^ Edward L. Keenan, Encyclopedia Americana article
7. ^ B.D. Grekov and A.Y. Yakubovski, The Golden Horde and its Downfall
8. ^ Denis Sinor, "The Mongols in the West", Journal of Asian History v.33 n.1 (1999).
9. ^ Sh.Bira - Culture exchange between Mongol Khanates, p 136
10. ^ Encyclopedia of Mongolia and Mongol Empire
11. ^ Russia and the Golden Horde, By Charles J. Halperin, page 28
12. ^ Russia and the Golden Horde: The Mongol Impact on Medieval Russian History, By Charles J. Halperin, pg.111
13. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica
14. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica
15. ^ Mantran, Robert (Fossier, Robert, ed.) "A Turkish or Mongolian Islam" in The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Middle Ages: 1250-1520, p. 298
16. ^ (Russian) Dmitri Donskoi Epoch
17. ^ (Russian) History of Moscow settlements - Suchevo
18. ^ Great Soviet Encyclopedia, 3rd edition, entry on "Московское восстание 1382", available online here
19. ^ "Russian Interaction with Foreign Lands"
20. ^ A.P.Grigorev and O.B.Frolova, Geographicheskoy opisaniye Zolotoy Ordi v encyclopedia al-Kashkandi-Tyurkologicheskyh sbornik, 2001, pp. 262-302

Further reading

• Boris Grekov and Alexander Yakubovski, The Golden Horde and its Downfall
• George Vernadsky, The Mongols and Russia

See also

• Berke-Hulagu war
• Black Death
• Cossacks
• Cumans
• Daily Life in the Mongol Empire
• Eurasians
• Islam in Europe
• List of Khans of the Golden Horde
• List of wars in the Muslim world
• Mongol invasion of Rus
• Nomadic people
• Russo-Kazan Wars
• Tatar invasions
• Timeline of the Tataro-Mongol Yoke in Russia
• Tokhtamysh-Tamerlane war

External links

• The Golden Horde coinage
• Golden Horde — articles at the World Archaeology, in Russian

v • d • e Mongol Empire (1206–1368)
Politics, organization and daily life	Some campaigns and battles		People		Terms
Organization of the Mongol Empire under Genghis Khan Mongol military tactics and organization Society of the Mongol Empire Christianity among the Mongols Franco-Mongol alliance Armeno-Mongol alliance Timeline of the Mongol Empire Timeline of Mongol conquests List of Tatar and Mongol raids against Russian states Mongol and Tatar states in Europe Flag of the Mongols Destruction under the Mongol Empire Khanates Ilkhanate Chagatai Khanate Golden Horde Yuan Dynasty Notable cities Karakorum Samarkand Sarai Batu Sarai Berke Tabriz Maragheh Dadu Bolghar Soltaniyeh Shangdu Qarshi Almalik Bukhara Ukek Majar Azaq Saray-Jük Xacitarxan		Asia Conquest of Central Asia Conquest of East Asia 1207 Siberia 1205–1209 Western China 1211–1234 Northern China Manchuria 1218–1221 Khwarezmia and Eastern Iran 1235–1276 Southern China 1231–1260 Korea 1277–1287 Burma 1274–1281 Japan 1257, 1284–1288 Vietnam 1227–1327 India 1293 Java Invasion of Middle East Battle of Köse Dag Battle of Baghdad (1258) Mongol invasions of Syria Mongol raids into Palestine Invasion of Europe Mongol conquest of Georgia and Armenia Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria Mongol invasion of Rus Mongol invasion of Poland Battle of Mohi		Emperors and rulers Genghis Khan Börte Tolui Khan Ögedei Khan Töregene Khatun Güyük Khan Oghul Qaimish Möngke Khan Kublai Khan The Yuan Khagans Prominent viceroys (khans) Jochi Batu Khan Orda Khan Berke Toqta Uzbeg Khan Chagatai Khan Duwa Kebek Hulegu Abagha Arghun Ghazan Prominent military generals Subutai Jebe Muqali Negudar Bo'orchu Guo Kan Borokhul Jelme Chilaun Khubilai Aju Bayan of the Baarin Kadan Burundai Nogai Khan		Titles Khagan Khan and Khatun Khanum Jinong Khong Tayiji Noyan Political and military terms Yam Pax Mongolica Yassa Kurultai Nerge Mangudai Tumen Kheshig

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