grape

1. Any of numerous woody vines of the genus Vitis, bearing clusters of edible berries and widely cultivated in many species and varieties.
2. The fleshy, smooth-skinned, purple, red, or green berry of a grape, eaten raw or dried as a raisin and widely used in winemaking.
3. A dark violet to dark grayish purple.
4. Grapeshot.

[Middle English, from Old French, bunch of grapes, hook, of Germanic origin.]

The two genera of grapes are Vitis and Muscadinia. Vitis vinifera has intermittent forked tendrils, bark that sheds, and elongated clusters with berries that adhere to the pedicels at maturity. This species also has thin, smooth, shiny leaves with three, five, or seven lobes. Berries may be round or oval and have edible skins that adhere to the flesh. In the American species skins slip from the pulp. Many American species have a characteristic musky or foxy odor and taste. Muscadinia can be easily distinguished from Vitis by bark that does not shed and simple tendrils that do not fork.

Viticulture is the science of grape production. In a broad sense, viticulture includes studies of grape varieties; methods of culture such as trellising, pruning, and training; insect and disease control; propagation; and raisin production.

In the United States, V. vinifera is grown on the west coast, and most of the grapes cultivated east of the Rocky Mountains have been derived from American native species such as V. labrusca and V. aestivalis, or from crosses between them and V. vinifera. There is also a native Caribbean species and several Asiatic species. There are three main species of Muscadinia that are found mostly in the southeast portion of the United States.

Table grapes are utilized for food and decorative purposes. Some of the leading table grapes in California are Emperor, Tokay, Thompson Seedless, Cardinal, and Perlette. Some of the principal commercial American varieties are Concord, Catawba, Delaware, and Niagara. Some of the important varieties of M. rotundifolia, the Muscadine grape, are Scuppernong, Thomas, and Hunt.

Important wine grapes in California include Cabernet Sauvignon, Carignane, Chardonnay, Grenache, French Colombard, and Zinfandel. Many of the North American and rotundifolia species that are used for eating purposes are also used for wine.

Fruit of varieties of Vitis vinifera. One of the oldest cultivated plants (recorded in ancient Egypt in 4000 bc). Can be grouped as dessert grapes, wine grapes, and varieties that are used for drying to produce raisins, currants, and sultanas (see fruit, dried). Of the many varieties of grape that are grown for wine making, nine are considered ‘classic varieties’: cabernet sauvignon, chardonnay, chenin blanc, merlot, pinot noir, riesling, sauvignon blanc, sémillon, syrah. A 100-g portion is a source of copper; provides 0.5 g of dietary fibre; supplies 60 kcal (245 kJ).

This edible berry grows in clusters on small shrubs or climbing vines in temperate zones throughout the world including Africa, Asia, Australia, Europe and North and South America. California is the largest U.S. Producer of grapes-both for wine and for the table. There are thousands of grape varieties, each with its own particular use and charm. In general, grapes are smooth-skinned and juicy; they may have several seeds in the center or they may be seedless. There are "slip-skin" varieties, which have skins that slip easily off the berry-like a mitten being pulled off a hand-and those with skins that cling stubbornly to the flesh. Grapes are divided into color categories of white or black (also referred to as "red"). White grape varieties range in color from pale yellow-green to light green, and black grapes from light red to purple-black. They're also classified by the way they're used-whether for wine (such as cabernet or riesling), table (like thompson seedless or ribier) or commercial food production, such as muscat grapes for raisins, zante grapes for currants and concord grapes for grape juice, jams and jellies. Wine grapes, for instance, have high acidity and are therefore too tart for general eating. Table grapes, with their low acid, would make dull, bland-tasting wines. The availability of table grapes depends on the variety. Buy grapes that are plump, full-colored and firmly attached to their stems. White (or green) grapes should have a slight pale yellow hue, a sign of ripeness. Dark grapes should be deeply colored, with no sign of green. In general, grapes should be stored, unwashed and in a plastic bag, in the refrigerator. They will keep for up to a week, though quality will diminish with time. Because most supermarket grapes have been sprayed with insecticide, they should be thoroughly washed and blotted dry with a paper towel just before eating or using. Ideally, grapes should be served at about 60°F, so it's best to remove them from the refrigerator about 30 minutes before serving. Table grapes can be used in salads, for pies and other desserts and of course for out-of-hand eating. Whole grapes are also available canned. Grape juice comes in cans or bottles; grape jelly, jam and preserves in jars. Fresh grapes contain small amounts of vitamin A and a variety of minerals. See also catawba; champagne grapes; chardonnay; chenin blanc; delaware; emperor; french colombard; merlot; muscadine; niagara; petite sirah; pinot blanc; pinot noir; sauvignon; sémillon; sultana; sylvaner; tokay; zinfandel.

n. short for grapeshot.

See the Introduction, Abbreviations and Pronunciation for further details.

(click to enlarge)
Grape (Vitis). (credit: Grant Heilman Photography)

Any of the 60 plant species that make up the genus Vitis (family Vitaceae), native to the northern temperate zone, including varieties that may be eaten as table fruit, dried to produce raisins, or crushed to make grape juice or wine. V. vinifera is the species most commonly used in wine making. The grape is usually a woody vine, climbing by means of tendrils. In arid regions it may form an almost erect shrub. Botanically, the fruit is a berry. Grapes contain such minerals as calcium and phosphorus and are a source of vitamin A. All grapes contain sugar (glucose and fructose) in varying quantities depending on the variety.

For more information on grape, visit Britannica.com.

Although other fruits are vinified, grapes are the basis for most of the world's wine and all of its fine wines. That's because certain grape species (which today have been refined to deliver the utmost in aroma and flavor) comprise the right properties to produce wine naturally-high amounts of fermentable sugar, strong flavors, color in the skins, and tannins in the seeds and skins (to assist aging). It's surmised that over 5,000 years ago someone discovered a naturally created wine-and that it tasted good. That prompted grape cultivation, along with winemaking techniques to help nature along. Today, wine production has become relatively sophisticated, and the wine, presumably, has become much better. Grapes belong to the botanical family Ampelidaceae, and of that family's ten genera, the genus Vitis is most important to winemakers. There are numerous species within the genus Vitis, the most important of which is vitis vinifera, the species that yields over 99 percent of the world's wines. Vitis vinifera is native to Europe and East and Central Asia, but it has been planted all over the world. There are estimated to be thousands of varieties of this species, some of the best-known being cabernet sauvignon, chardonnay, merlot, pinot noir, sauvignon blanc, syrah and zinfandel. Other Vitis species that produce grapes suitable for wine include vitis labrusca, vitis riparia and vitis rotundifolia (all of which are native to the Americas). Even though these species are not the quality of the Vitis vinifera grapes, some of them have played a critical role in worldwide grape production. That's because the Vitis vinifera roots are susceptible to phylloxera and the native American vines, particularly Vitis riparia, are resistant to this louse. Most of the world's vineyards now have phylloxera-resistant rootstocks (other than Vitis vinifera) that have Vitis vinifera vines grafted to them. This resulting marriage allows the roots to survive while still producing the best wine grapes.

A person's head.

n.

    Hail noble fruit! -- by Homer sung,
        Anacreon and Khayyam;
    Thy praise is ever on the tongue
        Of better men than I am.
    
    The lyre in my hand has never swept,
        The song I cannot offer:
    My humbler service pray accept --
        I'll help to kill the scoffer.
    
    The water-drinkers and the cranks
        Who load their skins with liquor --
    I'll gladly bear their belly-tanks
        And tap them with my sticker.
    
    Fill up, fill up, for wisdom cools
        When e'er we let the wine rest.
    Here's death to Prohibition's fools,
        And every kind of vine-pest!
                                                       Jamrach Holobom

The grape is a symbol of harvest and of sacrifice. Because of popular images in which beautiful damsels hand-feed grapes to reclining revelers, grapes may represent wealth, opulence, or decadence. Christian rituals incorporate grapes to represent the blood of Christ.

This article is about the fruits of the genus Vitis. For the European grapevine, see Vitis vinifera. For other uses, see Grape (disambiguation).

Green table grapes

Grapes, red or green Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 70 kcal   290 kJ
Carbohydrates     18.1 g - Sugars  15.48 g - Dietary fiber  0.9 g   Fat 0.16 g Protein 0.72 g Thiamine (Vit. B1)  0.069 mg   5% Riboflavin (Vit. B2)  0.07 mg   5% Niacin (Vit. B3)  0.188 mg   1% Pantothenic acid (B5)  0.05 mg  1% Vitamin B6  0.086 mg 7% Folate (Vit. B9)  2 μg  1% Vitamin B12  0 μg   0% Vitamin C  10.8 mg 18% Vitamin K  22 μg 21% Calcium  10 mg 1% Iron  0.36 mg 3% Magnesium  7 mg 2%  Manganese  0.071 mg 4%  Phosphorus  20 mg 3% Potassium  191 mg   4% Sodium  3.02 mg 0% Zinc  0.07 mg 1%
Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults. Source: USDA Nutrient database

A grape is the non-climacteric fruit, botanically a true berry, that grows on the perennial and deciduous woody vines of the genus Vitis. Grapes can be eaten raw or used for making jam, juice, jelly, vinegar, wine, grape seed extracts, raisins, and grape seed oil. Grapes are also used in some kinds of candy.

Contents 1 History 2 Description 3 Grapevines 4 Distribution and production 5 Seedless grapes 6 Raisins, currants, sultanas and Kismis 7 Health claims 7.1 French Paradox 7.2 Resveratrol 7.3 Anthocyanins and other phenolics 7.4 Seed constituents 7.5 Concord grape juice 8 Diagram 9 See also 10 Sources 11 External links

History

Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics show the cultivation of grapes. Scholars believe that ancient Greeks, Phoenicians and Romans also grew grapes both for eating and wine production. Later, the growing of grapes spread to Europe, North Africa, and eventually to the United States. Native grapes in North America grew along streams; however, the first cultivated grapes in California were grown by Spanish Franciscan Friars looking to make a sacramental wine for the California Missions. The first table grape vineyard in California is credited to an early settler by the name of William Wolfskill in the Los Angeles area. As more settlers came to California, more and more varieties of European grapes were introduced, some for wine-making, others for raisins and some for eating fresh.

Today in the United States, approximately 98 percent of commercially grown table grapes are from California (California Table Grape Commission).

Description

Grapes grow in clusters of 6 to 300, and can be crimson, black, dark blue, yellow, green and pink. "White" grapes are actually green in color, and are evolutionarily derived from the red grape. Mutations in two regulatory genes of white grapes turn off production of anthocyanins which are responsible for the color of red grapes.^[1] Anthocyanins and other pigment chemicals of the larger family of polyphenols in red grapes are responsible for the varying shades of purple in red wines.^[2][3]

Grapevines

Main article: Vitis

Most grapes come from cultivars of Vitis vinifera, the European grapevine native to the Mediterranean and Central Asia. Minor amounts of fruit and wine come from American and Asian species such as:

• Vitis labrusca, the North American table and grape juice grapevines (including the concord cultivar), sometimes used for wine. Native to the Eastern United States and Canada.
• Vitis riparia, a wild vine of North America, sometimes used for winemaking and for jam. Native to the entire Eastern U.S. and north to Quebec.
• Vitis rotundifolia, the muscadines, used for jams and wine. Native to the Southeastern United States from Delaware to the Gulf of Mexico.
• Vitis amurensis, the most important Asian species.

Yaquti Grapes production in 2008, Iran.

Distribution and production

Grape production in 2005

According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 75,866 square kilometres of the world are dedicated to grapes. Approximately 71% of world grape production is used for wine, 27% as fresh fruit, and 2% as dried fruit. A portion of grape production goes to producing grape juice to be reconstituted for fruits canned "with no added sugar" and "100% natural". The area dedicated to vineyards is increasing by about 2% per year.

The following table of top wine-producers shows the corresponding areas dedicated to grapes for wine making:

Country	Area Dedicated
Spain	11,750 km²
France	8,640 km²
Italy	8,270 km²
Turkey	8,120 km²
United States	4,150 km²
Iran	2,860 km²
Romania	2,480 km²
Portugal	2,160 km²
Argentina	2,080 km²
Australia	1,642 km²
Lebanon	1,122 km²

Top Ten Grapes Producers — 11 June 2008
Country	Production (Tonnes)	Footnote
Italy	8,519,418
France	6,500,000	F
People's Republic of China	6,250,000	F
United States	6,105,080
Spain	6,013,000
Turkey	3,923,040
Iran	3,000,000	F
Argentina	2,900,000	F
Chile	2,350,000	F
India	1,667,700
World	7,501,872	A
No symbol = official figure, P = official figure, F = FAO estimate, * = Unofficial/Semi-official/mirror data, C = Calculated figure A = Aggregate(may include official, semi-official or estimates); Source: Food And Agricultural Organization of United Nations: Economic And Social Department: The Statistical Devision

Seedless grapes

Seedlessness is a highly desirable subjective quality in table grape selection, and seedless cultivars now make up the overwhelming majority of table grape plantings. Because grapevines are vegetatively propagated by cuttings, the lack of seeds does not present a problem for reproduction. It is, however, an issue for breeders, who must either use a seeded variety as the female parent or rescue embryos early in development using tissue culture techniques.

There are several sources of the seedlessness trait, and essentially all commercial cultivators get it from one of three sources: Thompson Seedless, Russian Seedless, and Black Monukka, all being cultivars of Vitis vinifera. There are currently more than a dozen varieties of seedless grapes. Several, such as Einset Seedless, Reliance and Venus, have been specifically cultivated for hardiness and quality in the relatively cold climates of north-eastern United States and southern Ontario.^[4]

An offset to the improved eating quality of seedlessness is the loss of potential health benefits provided by the enriched phytochemical content of grape seeds (see Health claims, below).^[5][6]

Raisins, currants, sultanas and Kismis

Raisins

In most of Europe, dried grapes are referred to as 'raisins' or the local equivalent. In the UK, three different varieties are recognized, forcing the EU to use the term "Dried vine fruit" in official documents.

A raisin is any dried grape. While raisin is a French loanword, the word in French refers to the fresh fruit; grappe (from which the English grape is derived) refers to the bunch (as in une grappe de raisins).

A currant is a dried Zante Black Corinth grape, the name being a corruption of the French raisin de Corinthe (Corinth grape). Note also that currant has come to refer also to the blackcurrant and redcurrant, two berries unrelated to grapes.

A sultana was originally a raisin made from a specific type of grape of Turkish origin, but the word is now applied to raisins made from common grapes and chemically treated to resemble the traditional sultana.

Health claims

Main articles: French Paradox and Resveratrol

French Paradox

Comparing diets among western countries, researchers have discovered that although the French tend to eat higher levels of animal fat, surprisingly the incidence of heart disease remains low in France, a phenomenon named the French Paradox and thought to occur from protective benefits of regularly consuming red wine. Apart from potential benefits of alcohol itself, including reduced platelet aggregation and vasodilation,^[7] polyphenols (e.g., resveratrol) mainly in the grape skin provide other suspected health benefits, such as:^[8]

• alteration of molecular mechanisms in blood vessels, reducing susceptibility to vascular damage
• decreased activity of angiotensin, a systemic hormone causing blood vessel constriction that would elevate blood pressure
• increased production of the vasodilator hormone, nitric oxide (endothelium-derived relaxing factor)

Although adoption of wine consumption is not recommended by some health authorities,^[9] a significant volume of research indicates moderate consumption, such as one glass of red wine a day for women and two for men, may confer health benefits.^[10][11][12] Emerging evidence is that wine polyphenols like resveratrol^[13] provide physiological benefit whereas alcohol itself may have protective effects on the cardiovascular system.^[14]

Resveratrol

Grape phytochemicals such as resveratrol (a polyphenol antioxidant), have been positively linked to inhibiting any cancer, heart disease, degenerative nerve disease, viral infections and mechanisms of Alzheimer's disease.^[15][16]

Protection of the genome through antioxidant actions may be a general function of resveratrol.^[17] In laboratory studies, resveratrol bears a significant transcriptional overlap with the beneficial effects of calorie restriction in heart, skeletal muscle and brain. Both dietary interventions inhibit gene expression associated with heart and skeletal muscle aging, and prevent age-related heart failure.^[18]

Resveratrol is the subject of several human clinical trials,^[19] among which the most advanced is a one year dietary regimen in a Phase III study of elderly patients with Alzheimer's disease.^[20]

Synthesized by many plants, resveratrol apparently serves antifungal and other defensive properties. Dietary resveratrol has been shown to modulate the metabolism of lipids and to inhibit oxidation of low-density lipoproteins and aggregation of platelets.^[21]

Resveratrol is found in wide amounts among grape varieties, primarily in their skins and seeds which, in muscadine grapes, have about one hundred times higher concentration than pulp.^[22] Fresh grape skin contains about 50 to 100 micrograms of resveratrol per gram.^[23]

Anthocyanins and other phenolics

Anthocyanins tend to be the main polyphenolics in red grapes whereas flavan-3-ols (e.g., catechins) are the more abundant phenolic in white varieties.^[24] Total phenolic content, an index of dietary antioxidant strength, is higher in red varieties due almost entirely to anthocyanin density in red grape skin compared to absence of anthocyanins in white grape skin.^[24] It is these anthocyanins that are attracting the efforts of scientists to define their properties for human health.^[25] Phenolic content of grape skin varies with cultivar, soil composition, climate, geographic origin, and cultivation practices or exposure to diseases, such as fungal infections.

Red wine offers health benefits more so than white because many beneficial compounds are present in grape skin, and only red wine is fermented with skins. The amount of fermentation time a wine spends in contact with grape skins is an important determinant of its resveratrol content.[6] Ordinary non-muscadine red wine contains between 0.2 and 5.8 mg/L,^[26] depending on the grape variety, because it is fermented with the skins, allowing the wine to absorb the resveratrol. By contrast, a white wine contains lower phenolic contents because it is fermented after removal of skins.

Wines produced from muscadine grapes may contain more than 40 mg/L, an exceptional phenolic content.^[22][27] In muscadine skins, ellagic acid, myricetin, quercetin, kaempferol, and trans-resveratrol are major phenolics.^[28] Contrary to previous results, ellagic acid and not resveratrol is the major phenolic in muscadine grapes.

Seed constituents

Since the 1980s, biochemical and medical studies have demonstrated significant antioxidant properties of grape seed oligomeric proanthocyanidins.^[29] Together with tannins, polyphenols and polyunsaturated fatty acids, these seed constituents display inhibitory activities against several experimental disease models, including cancer, heart failure and other disorders of oxidative stress.^[30][31]

Grape seed oil from crushed seeds is used in cosmeceuticals and skincare products for many perceived health benefits. Grape seed oil is notable for its high contents of tocopherols (vitamin E), phytosterols, and polyunsaturated fatty acids such as linoleic acid, oleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid.^[32][33][34]

Concord grape juice

Commercial juice products from Concord grapes have been applied in medical research studies, showing potential benefits against the onset stage of cancer,^[35] platelet aggregation and other risk factors of atherosclerosis,^[36] loss of physical performance and mental acuity during aging^[37] and hypertension in humans.^[38]

Diagram

See also

• List of grape varieties
• Annual growth cycle of grapevines

Sources

• Organisation Internationale de la Vigne et du Vin (pdf)
• Australian Wine and Brandy Corporation.

Footnotes

1. ^ Walker AR, Lee E, Bogs J, McDavid DA, Thomas MR, Robinson SP (2007). "White grapes arose through the mutation of two similar and adjacent regulatory genes". Plant J 49 (5): 772–85. doi:10.1111/j.1365-313X.2006.02997.x. PMID 17316172. 
2. ^ Waterhouse AL (May 2002). "Wine phenolics". Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 957: 21–36. PMID 12074959. http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/openurl?genre=article&sid=nlm:pubmed&issn=0077-8923&date=2002&volume=957&spage=21. 
3. ^ Brouillard R, Chassaing S, Fougerousse A (December 2003). "Why are grape/fresh wine anthocyanins so simple and why is it that red wine color lasts so long?". Phytochemistry 64 (7): 1179–86. PMID 14599515. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0031942203005181. 
4. ^ Reisch BI, Peterson DV, Martens M-H. "Seedless Grapes", in "Table Grape Varieties for Cool Climates", Information Bulletin 234, Cornell University, New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, retrieved December 30, 2008
5. ^ Shi J, Yu J, Pohorly JE, Kakuda Y (2003). "Polyphenolics in grape seeds-biochemistry and functionality". J Med Food 6 (4): 291–9. doi:10.1089/109662003772519831. PMID 14977436. 
6. ^ Parry J, Su L, Moore J, et al. (May 2006). "Chemical compositions, antioxidant capacities, and antiproliferative activities of selected fruit seed flours". J. Agric. Food Chem. 54 (11): 3773–8. doi:10.1021/jf060325k. PMID 16719495. 
7. ^ Providência R (November 2006). "Cardiovascular protection from alcoholic drinks: scientific basis of the French Paradox". Rev Port Cardiol 25 (11): 1043–58. PMID 17274460. 
8. ^ Opie LH, Lecour S (July 2007). "The red wine hypothesis: from concepts to protective signalling molecules". Eur. Heart J. 28 (14): 1683–93. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehm149. PMID 17561496. 
9. ^ American Heart Association, Alcohol, wine and cardiovascular disease.[1]
10. ^ Alcohol. Harvard School of Public Health
11. ^ Mukamal KJ, Kennedy M, Cushman M, et al. (January 2008). "Alcohol consumption and lower extremity arterial disease among older adults: the cardiovascular health study". Am. J. Epidemiol. 167 (1): 34–41. doi:10.1093/aje/kwm274. PMID 17971339. 
12. ^ de Lange DW, van de Wiel A (May 2004). "Drink to prevent: review on the cardioprotective mechanisms of alcohol and red wine polyphenols". Semin Vasc Med 4 (2): 173–86. doi:10.1055/s-2004-835376. PMID 15478039. 
13. ^ Das S, Das DK (June 2007). "Resveratrol: a therapeutic promise for cardiovascular diseases". Recent Patents Cardiovasc Drug Discov 2 (2): 133–8. doi:10.2174/157489007780832560. PMID 18221111. 
14. ^ Sato M, Maulik N, Das DK (May 2002). "Cardioprotection with alcohol: role of both alcohol and polyphenolic antioxidants". Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 957: 122–35. PMID 12074967. http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/openurl?genre=article&sid=nlm:pubmed&issn=0077-8923&date=2002&volume=957&spage=122. 
15. ^ Shankar S, Singh G, Srivastava RK (2007). "Chemoprevention by resveratrol: molecular mechanisms and therapeutic potential". Front. Biosci. 12: 4839–54. doi:10.2741/2432. PMID 17569614. http://www.bioscience.org/2007/v12/af/2432/fulltext.htm. 
16. ^ Mancuso C, Bates TE, Butterfield DA, et al. (December 2007). "Natural antioxidants in Alzheimer's disease". Expert Opin Investig Drugs 16 (12): 1921–31. doi:10.1517/13543784.16.12.1921. PMID 18042001. 
17. ^ Gatz SA, Wiesmüller L (February 2008). "Take a break—resveratrol in action on DNA". Carcinogenesis 29 (2): 321–32. doi:10.1093/carcin/bgm276. PMID 18174251. 
18. ^ Barger JL, Kayo T, Vann JM, et al. (2008). "A low dose of dietary resveratrol partially mimics caloric restriction and retards aging parameters in mice". PLoS ONE 3 (6): e2264. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002264. PMID 18523577. 
19. ^ Listing of resveratrol clinical trials, ClinicalTrials.gov, a service of the US National Institutes of Health[2]
20. ^ Randomized Trial of a Nutritional Supplement in Alzheimer's Disease, US Department of Veterans Affairs, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, May 2008 [3]
21. ^ Chan WK, Delucchi AB (November 2000). "Resveratrol, a red wine constituent, is a mechanism-based inactivator of cytochrome P450 3A4". Life Sci. 67 (25): 3103–12. doi:10.1016/S0024-3205(00)00888-2. PMID 11125847. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0024320500008882. 
22. ^ ^{a b} LeBlanc, MR (2005). Cultivar, Juice Extraction, Ultra Violet Irradiation and Storage Influence the Stilbene Content of Muscadine Grapes (Vitis Rotundifolia Michx.). PhD Dissertation, Louisiana State University[4]
23. ^ Li X, Wu B, Wang L, Li S (November 2006). "Extractable amounts of trans-resveratrol in seed and berry skin in Vitis evaluated at the germplasm level". J. Agric. Food Chem. 54 (23): 8804–11. doi:10.1021/jf061722y. PMID 17090126. 
24. ^ ^{a b} Cantos E, Espín JC, Tomás-Barberán FA (September 2002). "Varietal differences among the polyphenol profiles of seven table grape cultivars studied by LC-DAD-MS-MS". J. Agric. Food Chem. 50 (20): 5691–6. doi:10.1021/jf0204102. PMID 12236700. 
25. ^ Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry Presents Research from the 2007 International Berry Health Benefits Symposium, Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry ACS Publications, February 2008
26. ^ Gu X, Creasy L, Kester A, Zeece M (August 1999). "Capillary electrophoretic determination of resveratrol in wines". J. Agric. Food Chem. 47 (8): 3223–7. doi:10.1021/jf981211e. PMID 10552635. 
27. ^ Ector BJ, Magee JB, Hegwood CP, Coign MJ. Resveratrol Concentration in Muscadine Berries, Juice, Pomace, Purees, Seeds, and Wines. [5]
28. ^ Pastrana-Bonilla E, Akoh CC, Sellappan S, Krewer G (August 2003). "Phenolic content and antioxidant capacity of muscadine grapes". J. Agric. Food Chem. 51 (18): 5497–503. doi:10.1021/jf030113c. PMID 12926904. 
29. ^ Bagchi D, Bagchi M, Stohs SJ, et al. (August 2000). "Free radicals and grape seed proanthocyanidin extract: importance in human health and disease prevention". Toxicology 148 (2-3): 187–97. doi:10.1016/S0300-483X(00)00210-9. PMID 10962138. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0300483X00002109. 
30. ^ Agarwal C, Singh RP, Agarwal R (November 2002). "Grape seed extract induces apoptotic death of human prostate carcinoma DU145 cells via caspases activation accompanied by dissipation of mitochondrial membrane potential and cytochrome c release". Carcinogenesis 23 (11): 1869–76. doi:10.1093/carcin/23.11.1869. PMID 12419835. http://carcin.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=12419835. 
31. ^ Bagchi D, Sen CK, Ray SD, et al. (2003). "Molecular mechanisms of cardioprotection by a novel grape seed proanthocyanidin extract". Mutat. Res. 523-524: 87–97. PMID 12628506. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S002751070200324X. 
32. ^ Beveridge TH, Girard B, Kopp T, Drover JC (March 2005). "Yield and composition of grape seed oils extracted by supercritical carbon dioxide and petroleum ether: varietal effects". J. Agric. Food Chem. 53 (5): 1799–804. doi:10.1021/jf040295q. PMID 15740076. 
33. ^ Crews C, Hough P, Godward J, et al. (August 2006). "Quantitation of the main constituents of some authentic grape-seed oils of different origin". J. Agric. Food Chem. 54 (17): 6261–5. doi:10.1021/jf060338y. PMID 16910717. 
34. ^ Tangolar SG, Ozoğul Y, Tangolar S, Torun A (September 2007). "Evaluation of fatty acid profiles and mineral content of grape seed oil of some grape genotypes". Int J Food Sci Nutr 60: 1–8. doi:10.1080/09637480701581551. PMID 17886077. 
35. ^ Jung KJ, Wallig MA, Singletary KW (February 2006). "Purple grape juice inhibits 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA)-induced rat mammary tumorigenesis and in vivo DMBA-DNA adduct formation". Cancer Lett. 233 (2): 279–88. doi:10.1016/j.canlet.2005.03.020. PMID 15878797. 
36. ^ Shanmuganayagam D, Warner TF, Krueger CG, Reed JD, Folts JD (January 2007). "Concord grape juice attenuates platelet aggregation, serum cholesterol and development of atheroma in hypercholesterolemic rabbits". Atherosclerosis 190 (1): 135–42. doi:10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2006.03.017. PMID 16780846. 
37. ^ Shukitt-Hale B, Carey A, Simon L, Mark DA, Joseph JA (March 2006). "Effects of Concord grape juice on cognitive and motor deficits in aging". Nutrition 22 (3): 295–302. doi:10.1016/j.nut.2005.07.016. PMID 16412610. 
38. ^ Park YK, Kim JS, Kang MH (2004). "Concord grape juice supplementation reduces blood pressure in Korean hypertensive men: double-blind, placebo controlled intervention trial". Biofactors 22 (1-4): 145–7. doi:10.1002/biof.5520220128. PMID 15630270. http://iospress.metapress.com/openurl.asp?genre=article&issn=0951-6433&volume=22&issue=1&spage=145. 

External links

Look up grape in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Grapes

• Taxonomic listings for Vitis genus, US Department of Agriculture, Germplasm Resources Information Network
• SAFECROP - Proceedings of the 5th International Workshop on Grapevine Downy and Powdery Mildew
• Nutrition information for grapes
• Information on virus diseases of wine grapes

v • d • e Viticulture Biology and Horticulture Grapes · Vitis · Vitis vinifera · Grape varieties · Identification and classification of grapevines (Ampelography) · Rootstock · Hybrids · Growth cycle · Ripening (Veraison) · Grapevine canopy · Grape Genomics · Vineyard Environmental Variation Terroir · Topography (slope, aspect, elevation) · Soil · Climate · Macroclimate · Microclimate · Temperature · Drainage Vineyard Planting Grapevine planting/propagation · Row orientation · Trellis design Vineyard Management Pruning · Training and canopy management · Irrigation · Erosion control · Fertilizing · Pest control · Weed control · Frost damage prevention · Sunburn prevention · Prevention of uneven ripening (Millerandage) · Green harvest (Vendange verte) Harvest Harvest · Vintage · Weather · Sugar content (Brix) · Noble rot · Traditions and lore Pests and Diseases Diseases · Phylloxera · Vine moth · Red spider mite · Nematodes · Birds · Powdery mildew · Downy mildew · Grey rot · Black rot · Pierce's disease Approaches and Issues Precision viticulture · Adaptive management · Organic agriculture · Biodynamics · Sustainability · Environmental stewardship · Climate change See also Viticulture glossary · Wine glossary · Wine · Winemaking

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Dansk (Danish)
n. - vindrue, drue

idioms:

• grape shot    kartæske

Nederlands (Dutch)
druif, wijn, schroot, hielbeengezwel (paard)

Français (French)
n. - raisin, grain de raisin

idioms:

• grape shot    (Mil) mitraille

Deutsch (German)
n. - Weintraube, Weinbeere

idioms:

• grape shot    (Mil) Kartätsche

Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - σταφύλι, ρώγα, κλήμα, σκούρο μοβ χρώμα

idioms:

• grape shot    χοντρά σκάγια

Italiano (Italian)
grappolo

idioms:

• grape shot    mitraglia

Português (Portuguese)
n. - uva (f) (Bot.), videira (f) (Bot.)

idioms:

• grape shot    metralha (f) (de canhão) (Mil.)

Русский (Russian)
виноград, виноградина, гроздь, красновато-лиловый цвет

idioms:

• grape shot    шрапнель

Español (Spanish)
n. - uva

idioms:

• grape shot    metralla

Svenska (Swedish)
n. - vindruva

中文（简体）(Chinese (Simplified))
葡萄, 葡萄树

idioms:

• grape shot    葡萄弹

中文（繁體）(Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 葡萄, 葡萄樹

idioms:

• grape shot    葡萄彈

한국어 (Korean)
n. - 포도, 포도 나무

日本語 (Japanese)
n. - ブドウ, ブドウの木

idioms:

• grape shot    ぶどう弾

العربيه (Arabic)
‏(الاسم) عنب‏

עברית (Hebrew)
n. - ‮ענב‬

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