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(established 1904)

Beginning life as a workshop producing riding boots and hand luggage this famous leather goods and fashion accessories firm originated as a leather goods workshop in Florence in 1904. Founded by Guccio Gucci, the first shop opened in 1922. His son, Aldo, moved to New York in 1953 and succeeded in creating new markets for the company's products, attracting the attention of celebrities such as Audrey Hepburn, Jackie Kennedy, Grace Kelly, and Elizabeth Taylor. In the 1960s the double ‘G’ trademark, designed by Aldo's son Paolo, soon became a byword for high fashion in both the USA and Europe. However, following 1977 Paolo's rise to vice-presidency and managing directorships of Gucci Shops Inc. and Gucci Parfums of America, a series of vexatious family litigations and tax irregularities eventually led to the selling of 50 per cent of the company's shares to the Investcorp, an Arab investment bank. After a further period of family in-fighting during the 1980s the Guccis finally lost control of the company to Investcorp in 1994. Since then there has been significant investment in design and advertising and the company name has again been successful in the international market place.

 
 
(Italian fashion and accessories house)
  • Founded: in Florence, Italy, as saddlery shop by Guccio Gucci (1881-1953), 1906, after family millinery business failed.
  • Company History: Became retailer of accessories, 1923; Gucci shops opened in Florence, 1923; boutiques open in Rome, 1938; firm renamed Societá Anonima Guccio Gucci, 1939; stores opened in Milan, 1951; renamed Guccio Gucci Srl, 1945; New York boutique opened, 1953; opened in Paris, 1963; shop opened in Hong Kong and Gucci Parfums formed, 1975 (renamed Gucci Parfums SpA, 1982); company renamed Guccio Gucci SpA, 1982; appointed Dawn Mello creative director, 1989; Tom Ford joined company, 1990; acquired by Investcorp, 1993; Mello departed and Ford named creative director, 1994; deaths of Mauritzio and Paolo Gucci, 1995; listed on the NYSE, 1995; rival Prada bought stake, 1998; sold stake to LVMH, 1999; Pinault Printemps Redoute acquired major stake and fought off LVMH, 1999; Alexander McQueen defected from LVMH to Gucci, 2000; hired Stella McCartney to create her own line, 2000; designer Nicolas Ghesquiére came to firm with acquisition of Balenciaga, 2001.
  • Exhibitions: Costume Archive, Metropolitan Museum, New York.
  • Awards: National Italian-American Foundation Special Achievement award, 2001 [de Sole].
  • Company Address: 73 Via Tornabuoni 50100, Florence, Italy.
  • Company Website:www.gucci.com.

The illustrious name of Gucci began as a mark on leather goods produced in Florentine workshops for the young Guccio Gucci. Inspired by the grandiose luggage transported by wealthy guests to the Ritz Hotel in London, where Gucci worked in the kitchens, the young Italian returned to his native country where he began making leather luggage.

The characteristic double-G motif printed on the canvas was introduced after World War II due to a shortage of leather. Its bold red and green bands on suitcases, bags, satchels, wallets, and purses have become one of the most copied trademarks in the world, along with France's Louis Vuitton. The Florence-based company grew to international proportions in the postwar period, expanding its range to include clothing, fragrances, household items such as decanters and glasses painted with the distinctive red and green bands, scarves, and a slew of other accessories. It was this indiscriminate expansion that ultimately proved to be detrimental to the name of Gucci for, as Yves Saint Laurent's director Pierre Bergé once said, "A name is like a cigarette—the more you puff on it the less you have left."

Added to this overexposure was the proliferation of Gucci imitations which reputedly cost the company a fortune in legal fees, along with infamous conflicts between the volatile members of the Gucci clan. All were detrimental to the high profile image the company needed to maintain. There were, however, many Gucci items that became status symbols in their own right—such as the Gucci loafer with its unmistakeable gilt snaffle trim which, according to the New York Times was what carried the company to fortune. Biographer Gerald McKnight notes in his book Gucci: A House Divided, (New York, 1987) that the loafer even became the subject of well-worn jokes in the 1970s when the name Gucci became as well known as household items such as the Hoover and cellophane tape.

Having lost a great deal of the prestigious aura that is a vital element to the success of a luxury brand, the house of Gucci suffered bad press during the 1980s, as journalists hungered after stories of bitter rivalry between family members and their legal battles. It was an American woman, Dawn Mello, who restored the luxurious image of Gucci when, in 1989, she was appointed executive vice-president and creative director of the company. Under her control, the existing Gucci lines were edited and refined, and fewer, more select new items introduced.

Mello provided a clever combination of just the right balance of historical relevance and a real sense of modernity which restored Gucci to its former glory as a "must have" name. She was helped by designer Tom Ford who came to Gucci in 1990. Three years later, in 1993, the Gucci clog was a sell-out item among the fashion cognoscenti and became the most copied shoe style of the season. Gucci was once again established as a purveyor of luxury goods but also as a serious contender in the high fashion stakes. This same year, the firm was acquired by Investcorp, and the following year relocated its headquarters from Milan to Florence. Mello however, left to rejoin Bergdorf Gordman in New York, and Ford was named Gucci's creative director.

Ford proved a good fit for Gucci, his collections took the house back to its must-have status. Along the way came corporate intrigue, when rival Prada suddenly acquired a chunk of Gucci in 1998, only to turn around and sell to archrival LVMH in 1999. The events sparked a takeover attempt, with Gucci narrowly escaping due to white knight François Pinault, whose Pinault Printemps Redoute bought in to Gucci. Pinault and Gucci CEO Domenico de Sole soon gave LVMH a run for its money in the bid to become the world's largest luxury firm. Though LVMH was ahead, Gucci was a force to be reckoned with and pursued the same targets as LVMH, such as Fendi in 1999. LVMH, partnered with Prada, prevailed; with Prada eventually selling its stake to LVMH. Gucci itself then went on a buying spree, acquiring stakes in Boucheron, Sergio Rossi, and Bottega Veneta.

By the end of the 20th century, Gucci had become a global competitor and flexed its muscle with the acquisition of Yves Saint Laurent and Balenciaga. Tom Ford, widely considered Europe's top designer by this time, took the design reins at YSL in addition to his Gucci responsibilities, and the Balenciaga buy brought hot new designer, Nicolas Ghesquiére into the fold. Alexander McQuuen, who had defected from LVMH, and Stella McCartney, another sensation, had also joined Gucci. With four of the fashion world's most acclaimed designers under its roof, Gucci was sure to take the catwalk by storm.

Publications

On Gucci:

    Books
  • Swann, June, Shoes, London, 1982.
  • Alfonsi, Maria-Vittoria, Leaders in Fashion: I grandi personaggi della moda, Bologna, 1983.
  • McKnight, Gerald, Gucci: A House Divided, New York, 1987.
  • Forden, Sara Gay, The House of Gucci, New York, 2000.
    Articles
  • Crittendon, Ann, "Knock-Offs Aside, Gucci's Blooming," in the New York Times, 25 June 1978.
  • "Artisans & Art: Gucci," in Fortune, 23 July 1984.
  • "Gucci, Taking Control," in WWD, 9 January 1987.
  • McKnight, Gerald, "Gucci: Hell for Leather," in the Sunday Times Magazine, (London), 6 September 1987.
  • Wolman, Karen, "Can an Outsider Fill Aldo Gucci's Loafers?," in Business Week, 30 November 1987.
  • "Gucci's Empire Splits a Seam," in Time, 20 June 1988.
  • "Aldo Gucci," in the New York Times, 21 January 1989.
  • McKnight, Gerald, "Aldo Gucci," [obituary] in The Independent, 23January 1990.
  • Rossant, John, "Can Maurizio Gucci Bring the Glamor Back?" in Business Week, 5 February 1990.
  • Jereski, Laura, "Watch Your Step, Cousin Paolo," in Forbes, 15October 1990.
  • Howell, Georgina, "Gucci Again," in Vogue, December 1990.
  • Dudar, Helen, "Reversal of Fortune: Dawn Mello Gets Gucci Back onIts Feet," in Working Woman, April 1991.
  • Friedman, Arthur, "Aldo Gucci Dies at 84," in WWD, 29 May 1992.
  • Costin, Glyn, "Dawn Mello Revamping Gucci," in WWD, 29 May 1992.
  • Infantino, Vivian, "Ford Drives Gucci into Faster Fashion Lane," in Footwear News, 14 November 1994.
  • Spindler, Amy M., "A Retreat from Retro Glamor," in the New York Times, 7 March 1995.
  • "Paolo Gucci," [obituary] in the Economist, 28 October 1995.
  • Infantino, Vivian, "Tom Ford: The Driving Force Behind Gucci's Revved-Up Performance," in Footwear News, 4 December 1995.
  • Min, Janice, "Couture de Force: Gucci is Once Again Chichi Thanks to the Savvy Designs of Tom Ford," in People, 4 March 1996.
  • Conti, Samantha, "Prada Buys Five-Percent Gucci Stake," in WWD, 8June 1998.
  • Luscombe, Belinda, "Catfight on the Catwalk," in Time, 22 June 1998.
  • Rawsthorn, Alice, "Prada Move Puts Gucci on Defensive," in the Financial Times, 7 July 1998.
  • Weisman, Katherine, "It's Getting Serious: LVMH Buys Prada's 9.5-Percent Stake in Gucci," in WWD, 13 January 1999.
  • Menkes, Suzy, "Gucci Buys House of YSL for $1-Billion," in the International Herald Tribune, 16 November 1999.
  • Givhan, Robin, "Givenchy's Loss, Gucci's Gain—Designer Alexander McQueen Leaves LVMH," in the Washington Post, 5 December 2000.
  • "At Yves Saint Laurent, Tom's Triumph," in WWD, 15 March 2001.
  • Menkes, Suzy, "Gucci Gets Europe's Hottest New Designer," in the International Herald Tribune, 7 July 2001.

— Catherine Woram; updated by Owen James

 
Wikipedia: Gucci
Gucci
Type Subsidiary of PPR (Euronext: PP)
Founded 1921
Headquarters Florence, Italy
Key people Guccio Gucci, Founder
Robert Polet, Chairman, President & CEO
Alexis Babeau, CFO
Frida Giannini, Creative director
Industry Consumer Goods
Products Textile - Apparel clothing
Revenue 8.7 billion €
Parent PPR
Website www.gucci.com

The House of Gucci, better known as simply Gucci, is an Italian iconic fashion and leather goods label. It was founded by Guccio Gucci (b.1881 – d.1953) in Florence in 1906.[1] Gucci is considered one of the most famous, prestigious, and easily recognizable fashion brands in the world.[2]

Gucci generated over US$7 billion worldwide of revenue in 2006 according to BusinessWeek magazine and was ranked 46th in the magazine's annual chart "Top 100 Brands".[3] For this reason Gucci is the second biggest selling fashion brand after LVMH. Most importantly Gucci is the biggest selling Italian brand in the world.[4] The House of Gucci belongs to the French conglomerate company Pinault-Printemps-Redoute (PPR). Gucci operates about 425 stores worldwide and it wholesales its products through franchisees and upscale department stores.[5]

History of the Gucci

Guccio Gucci was the son of an Italian merchant from the country’s northern manufacturing region. He started the House of Gucci in Florence in 1906 as small, family-owned leather saddlery shop. Guccio was an exceptional craftsman and began selling leather bags to horsemen in the 1920s. As a young man, he quickly built a reputation for quality, hiring the best craftsmen he could find to work in his atelier. In 1938, Gucci expanded and a boutique was opened in Rome. Guccio was responsible for designing many of the company's most notable products. In 1947, Gucci introduced the bamboo handle handbag, which is still a company mainstay. During the 1950s, Gucci also developed the trademark striped webbing, which was derived from the saddle girth, and the suede moccasin with a metal bit.

His wife Aida Calvelli had a large family, six children in all, though only his sons—Vasco, Aldo, Ugo, and Rodolfo—would play a role in leading the company. After Guccio's death in 1953, Aldo helped lead the company to a position of international prominence, opening the company’s first boutiques in London, Paris, and New York. Even in Gucci’s fledgling years, the family was notorious for its ferocious infighting. Disputes regarding inheritances, stock holdings, and day-to-day operations of the stores often divided the family and led to alliances. Gucci expanded overseas, board meetings about the company’s future often ended with tempers flaring and luggage and purses flying. Gucci targeted the Far East for further expansion in the late 1960s, opening stores in Hong Kong, Tokyo, and Korea. At that time, the company also developed its famous GG logo (Guccio Gucci's initials), the Flora silk scarf (worn prominently by Hollywood actress Grace Kelly), and the Jackie O shoulder bag, made famous by Jackie Kennedy, the wife of U.S. President John F. Kennedy.

Gucci remained one of the premier luxury goods establishments in the world until the late 1970s, when a series of disastrous business decisions and family quarrels brought the company to the verge of bankruptcy. At the time, brothers Aldo and Rodolfo controlled equal 50% shares of the company, though contributed less to the company than he and his sons did. In 1979, Aldo developed the Gucci Accessories Collection, or GAC, intended to bolster the sales for the Gucci Parfums sector, which his sons controlled. GAC consisted of small accessories, such as cosmetic bags, lighters, and pens, which were priced at considerably lower points than the other items in the company’s accessories catalogue. Aldo relegated control of Parfums to his son Roberto in an effort to weaken Rodolfo’s control of the overall operations of the company.


The AMC Hornet station wagon interior by Gucci
Enlarge
The AMC Hornet station wagon interior by Gucci

Aldo Gucci expanded into new markets including an agreement with American Motors Corporation (AMC). The 1972 AMC Hornet compact "Sportabout" station wagon became one of the first American cars to offer a special luxury trim package created by a famous fashion designer. The Gucci cars sported boldly striped green, red, and buff upholstery and on the door panels, as well as the designer's emblems and exterior color selections.

Though the Gucci Accessories Collection was well received, it proved to be the force that brought the Gucci dynasty crashing down. Within a few years, the Parfums division began outselling the Accessories division. The newly-founded wholesaling business had brought the once-exclusive brand to over a thousand stores in the United States alone with the GAC line, deteriorating the brand’s standing with fashionable customers. "In the 1960s and 1970s," writes Vanity Fair editor Graydon Carter, "Gucci had been at the pinnacle of chic, thanks to icons such as Audrey Hepburn, Grace Kelly, and Jacqueline Onassis. But by the 1980s, Gucci had lost its appeal, becoming a tacky airport brand."

It did not take long before ravaged the company’s pomp by flooding the market with cheap knockoffs, further tarnishing the Gucci name. Meanwhile, infighting was taking its toll on the operations of the company back in Italy: Rodolfo and Aldo squabbled over the Parfums division, of which Rodolfo controlled a meager 20% stake. By the mid-1980s, when Aldo was convicted of tax evasion in the United States by the testimony of his own son, the outrageous headlines of gossip magazines generated as much publicity for Gucci as its designs.

Rodolfo’s death in 1983 caused a major shakeup in the company when he left his 50% stake in Gucci to his son, Maurizio Gucci. Maurizio allied with Aldo’s son Paolo to gain control of the Board of Directors and established the Gucci Licensing division in the Netherlands for purposes. (This action would later have a drastic impact on the outcome of the company’s dispute with the world’s largest luxury goods company, LVMH Moët Hennessy Louis Vuitton.) Following the decision, the rest of the family left the company and, for the first time in years, one man was at the helm of Gucci. Maurizio sought to bury the fighting that had torn the company and his family apart and turned to talent outside of the company for Gucci’s future.

Corporate Gucci

A turnaround of the company devised in the late 1980s made Gucci one of the world's most influential fashion houses and a highly profitable business operation. In October of 1995 Gucci went public and had its first initial public offering on the AEX and NYSE for $22 per share. November of 1997 also proved to be a successful year as Gucci acquired a watch licensee, Severin-Montres, and renamed it Gucci Timepieces. The Gucci brand is considered one of the most frequently mentioned brands in music. The firm was named "European Company of the Year 1998" by the European Business Press Federation for its economic and financial performance, strategic vision as well as management quality.

Gucci world offices and headquarters are in Milan, Paris, London, New York, Boston, San Francisco, Beverly Hills, Honolulu, Tokyo, and Shanghai.

New management

In 1989, Maurizio managed to persuade Dawn Mello, whose revival of New York's Bergdorf Goodman in the 1970s made her a star in the retail business, to join the newly formed Gucci Group as creative director. At the helm of Gucci America was Domenico De Sole, a former lawyer who helped oversee Maurizio’s takeover of ten 1987 and 1989. The last addition to the creative team, which already included designers from Geoffrey Beene and Calvin Klein, was a young designer named Tom Ford. Raised in Texas and New Mexico, he had been interested in fashion since his early teens but only decided to pursue a career as a designer after dropping out of Parsons School of Design in 1986 as an architecture major. Dawn Mello hired Ford in 1990 at the urging of his partner, writer and editor Richard Buckley.

In the early 1990s, Gucci underwent what is now recognized as the poorest time in the company's history. Maurizio riled distributors, Investcorp shareholders, and executives at Gucci America by drastically reining in on the sales of the Gucci Accessories Collection, which in the United States alone generated $110 million in revenue every year. The company’s new accessories failed to pick up the slack, and for the next three years the company experienced heavy losses and teetered on the edge of bankruptcy. Maurizio was a charming man who passionately loved his family's business, but after four years most of the company's senior managers agreed that he was incapable of running the company. His management had had an adverse effect on the desirability of the brand, product quality, and distribution control. He was forced to sell his shares in the company to Investcorp in August of 1993. Dawn Mello returned to her job at Bergdorf Goodman less than a year after Maurizio’s departure, and the position of creative director went to Tom Ford, then just 32 years old. Ford had worked for years under the uninspiring direction of Maurizio and Mellow and wanted to take the company’s image in a new direction. De Sole, who had been elevated to CEO, realized that if Gucci was to become a profitable company, it would require a new image, and so he agreed to pursue Ford’s vision.

Domenico De Sole was incensed by the news and declined Arnault’s request for a spot on the board of directors, where he would have access to Gucci’s confidential earnings reports, strategy meetings, and design concepts. De Sole reacted by issuing new shares of stock in an effort to dilute the value of Arnault’s holdings. He also approached French holding company Pinault-Printemps-Redoute (PPR) about the possibility of forming a strategic alliance. Francois Pinault, the company’s founder, agreed to the idea and purchased 37 million shares in the company, or a 40% stake. Arnault’s share was diluted to a paltry 20%, and a legal battle ensued to challenge the legitimacy of the new Gucci-PPR partnership, with the law firm of Skadden, Arps, Slate, Meagher & Flom representing Gucci. Courts in the Netherlands ultimately upheld the PPR deal, as it did not violate that country's business laws. PPR now owns 68% of the group. The second largest shareholder is Crédit Lyonnais with 11%. As of September 2001 a settlement agreement was put into place between Gucci Group, LVMH, and PPR. 2001 was also an incredible year for the Gucci Group as it acquired percentages of Bottega Venetta, Di Modolo, Balenciaga, and formed a partnership with Stella McCartney.

In the 2004, the company, with its record high sales, went up for sale. The asking price was £7.2 Billion. Three very important people in the fashion industry decided to form three individual groups to take a dramatic impact on the fashion industry. They were Barry Dhillon, Pam Dhillon, and Rebecka John. Barry Dhillon was a highly respected person who was a catwalk specificationist and perfectionist in all of his directing and fashion roles he fulfilled with a team of 5,000 staff per team. Pam Dhillon with her organisation, and operation solo fire which put her high team of 10,000 staff to investigate further into other fashion teams and units, highly trained fashion surveillance. Rebecka John who worked closly with Barry and Pam with her staff of 4,000 people. The teams became one.[citation needed]

Ford leaves Gucci

After a failed attempt at contract renewal with PPR in 2003, Tom Ford and Domenico de Sole decided to take their leave from Gucci Group. Ford’s last show for Gucci returned to the roots of his first successful collection: the culture of celebrity. Print advertisements featured models in sleek, simple gowns inspired by the glamour of 1920s silent film stars. Ford priced up the ready-to-wear and used exotic fabrics like alligator and boar hide. His collection for Yves Saint Laurent followed the lead of the previous season’s Gucci women’s wear, with form fitting kimonos and Asian patterned dresses, while the menswear collection featured classic-looking tuxedos and smoking jackets. The announcement of his departure led to a complete presale of many items in New York department stores, and waitlists for his last accessories formed just days after the collection showed in Milan. In 2005, Tom Ford began designing a line of cosmetics for Estee Lauder, and planned to launch his own line of ready-to-wear and accessories under a Tom Ford label.

Current creative team

Following Ford's departure, Gucci Group retained three designers to continue the success of the company's flagship label: Alessandra Facchinetti and Frida Giannini[6], all of whom had worked under Ford's creative direction. Facchinetti was elevated to Creative Director of Womenswear in 2004 and designed for two seasons before leaving the company after a management dispute. Ray served as Creative Director of Menswear for three years before resigning in January 2006, citing his inability to create a consistent image for Gucci during his time as head designer. 32-year-old Giannini, who had been responsible for designing men's and women's accessories, currently serves as Creative Director for the entire brand. Giannini's Spring 2006 collection was lauded for its color and energy, recreating the buzz around the company's ready-to-wear that was first heard after Ford's 1995 season. Giannini's collections have thereafter departed from Ford's erotic 1990s looks. Even her fall-winter 2006 collection, with its sky-high hemlines and revealing necklines "wasn't quite Tom Ford's all-out orgy of glamour", as a review on Vogue magazine's website stated.

References in pop culture

Because of its iconic status, Gucci is frequently mentioned in popular culture. With the onset of "designer label" culture in the mid to late 1970's, the earliest reference of Gucci in a pop song would be "He's The Greatest Dancer” by Nile Rodgers and Bernard Edwards, 1979. It was performed by Sister Sledge, the "little sister" band of Rodgers & Edward's main band, Chic. “...The champion of dance, his moves would put you in a trance, and he never leaves the disco alone... He wears the finest clothes, the best designers, heaven knows, from his head down to his toes: Halston, Gucci, Fiorucci. He looks like a still, that man is dressed to kill...”

In hip-hop music, where rappers often name-drop to brag about their lifestyles of luxury,[7] Gucci is frequently mentioned.[8] In 2003, Gucci was the third most mentioned brand in Billboard top 20 singles, with appearances in 47 different songs.[8] Some critics claim that lyrical references to products are actually paid endorsements.[7]) Songs in which Gucci is mentioned include "Combination" by Aerosmith; "Add It Up" by The Kinks; "Gucci Time" By "Schooly D", "I Know What You Want" by Busta Rhymes and Mariah Carey; "Jigga That Nigga", "Oh My God", and "Poppin' Tags" by Jay-Z; "Vapors" and "Groupie Luv" by Snoop Dogg; "Why You Hurt Me" by Missy Elliott; "P.I.M.P." by 50 Cent; "Let's Get Down" by Bow Wow; "Favorite Things" by Big Brovaz; "Hell Yeah" by Ginuwine; "Paranoid Android" by Radiohead; "The Fad" by Chevelle; "Still Fly" by Big Tymers;

Gucci has also been mentioned in the movies Alfie, Pretty Woman, Pret a Porter, Troop Beverly Hills, Spiceworld: The Movie, Hannibal, The Wedding Planner, Maid in Manhattan, Hitch, Monster-in-Law, The Devil Wears Prada and Epic Movie. But also in the Italian film I Mitici - Colpo Gobbo a Milano. Gucci was also mentioned in the last season of Friends in the episode The One With Princess Consuela. Gucci was mentioned frequently in the first season of the TV series Ugly Betty.

Brands

Using the capital obtained from the PPR issue, the Group has steadily expanded beyond just the Gucci brand through a series of takeovers. As of 2004, the Gucci Group maintained whole or partial interests in the following companies or brands:

  • Watches
    • Bedat & Co (85%)

Trivia

Guinness World Records cites the Gucci "Genius Jeans" as the most expensive jeans in the world. A normal pair of Gucci jeans that had been distressed, ripped and covered with African beads, when they debuted in October 1998 in Milan, were priced at an astonishing US$3,134.[9]

Other uses

The word "Gucci" is commonly used in the British Army to refer to any item of impressive non-issue kit bought to replace or complement the issued equipment. Typical use would be something like "Have you seen their boots? Gucci Danners and Alt-Bergs all round!".[10]

See also

References

  1. ^ Gucci Group corporate history web pages, Retrieved on June 16 2007.
  2. ^ Promotion-type web page, Retrieved on June 16 2007.
  3. ^ BusinessWeek magazine ranking of Best Global Brands #46, Retrieved on June 16 2007.
  4. ^ Ibid.
  5. ^ [1]
  6. ^ Gucci official page for its creative Director, Retrieved on June 16 2007.
  7. ^ a b Kiley, David. Hip Hop Two-Step Over Product Placement BusinessWeek Online, April 06, 2005, accessed January 5, 2007
  8. ^ a b
  9. ^ Yara, Susan, "The Most Expensive Jeans" Forbes magazine, November 30, 2005, Retrieved on June 16, 2007.
  10. ^ Retrieved on June 16, 2007.

External links


 
 

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Modern Design Dictionary. A Dictionary of Modern Design. Copyright © 2004, 2005 by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.  Read more
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