Share on Facebook Share on Twitter Email
Answers.com

headstone

 
Dictionary: head·stone   (hĕd'stōn') pronunciation
Home > Library > Literature & Language > Dictionary
n.
  1. A memorial stone set at the head of a grave.
  2. also head stone Architecture. See keystone (sense 1).

Search unanswered questions...

Enter a question here...
Search: All sources Community Q&A Reference topics

How Products are Made: How is a headstone made?
Top
Home > Library > Science > How Products are Made

Background

Headstones are known by many different names, such as memorial stones, grave markers, gravestones, and tombstones. All of which apply to the function of headstones; the memorialization and remembrance of the deceased. Headstones were originally made from fieldstones or pieces of wood. In some localities, stones (referred to as "wolf stones") were placed over the body to prevent scavenging animals from uncovering a shallow grave.

History

Archeologists have found Neanderthal graves that date back 20,000-75,000 years. The bodies have been discovered in caves with large rock piles or boulders covering the openings. It is thought that these grave sites were accidental. The wounded or dying had probably been left behind to recover, and the rocks or boulders were pushed in front of the cave for protection from wild animals. The Sharindar Cave in Iraq was home to the remains of a person (c. 50,000 B.C.) with flowers strewn about the body.

Various other methods of burial have developed as time moved on. The Chinese were the first to use coffins to contain their dead some time around 30,000 B.C. Mummification and embalming were used about 3200 B.C. to preserve the bodies of the Egyptian pharaohs for the afterlife. The pharaohs would be placed in a sarcophagus and entombed with statues representing their servants and trusted advisors, as well as gold and luxuries to ensure their acceptance in the world beyond. Some kings required that their actual servants and advisors accompany them in death, and the servants and advisors were killed and placed in the tomb. Cremation, which started about the same time as mummification, was also a popular method of disposing of the dead. Today it accounts for 26% of disposal methods in the United States and 45% in Canada.

As religions developed, cremation came to be looked down upon. Many religions even banned cremation, claiming it was reminiscent of pagan rituals. Burial was the preferred method, and sometimes the dead were laid out for days in the home so people could pay their respects. In 1348, the Plague hit Europe and forced people to bury the dead as soon as possible and away from the cities. These death and burial rituals continued until cemeteries were overflowing and, due to the numerous shallow graves, continuing to spread disease. In 1665, the English Parliament ruled in favor of having only small funerals and the legal depth of graves was made to stand at 6 ft (1.8 m). This decreased the spread of disease, but many cemeteries continued to be overpopulated.

The first cemetery similar to those seen today, was established in Paris in 1804 and called a "garden" cemetery. The Pèere-Lachaise is home to many famous names such as Oscar Wilde, Frederick Chopin, and Jim Morrison. It was in these garden cemeteries that the headstone and memorials became elaborate works. One's social status determined the size and artistry of the memorial. Early memorials depicted horrible scenes with skeletons and demons to instill fear of the afterlife in the living. Later in the nineteenth century, headstones evolved in favor of peaceful scenes, such as cherubs and angels leading the deceased upward. The United States established its own rural cemetery, The Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1831.

Raw Materials

Early headstones were made out of slate, which was available locally in early New England. The next material to become popular was marble, but after time the marble would erode and the names and particulars of the deceased were indecipherable. By 1850, granite become the preferred headstone material due to its resilience and accessibility. In modern memorials granite is the main raw material used.

Granite is an igneous rock composed primarily of quartz, feldspar, and plagioclase feldspar with other small bits of minerals mixed in. Granite can be white, pink, light gray, or dark gray. This rock is made from magma (molten material) that is slowly cooled. The cooled magma is unearthed through shifts in the earth's crust and erosion of soil.

Design

There are countless ways to personalize a headstone. Epitaphs range from scripture quotes to obscure and humorous statements. Accompanying statuettes can be carved into, placed on top of, or beside the stone. Size and shape of headstones also varies. Generally, all stones are machine polished and carved, then finely detailed by hand.

The Manufacturing
Process

  1. The first step is to choose the type (typically marble or granite) and color of the stone. The granite block is then cut from the bedrock. There are three ways of doing this. The first method is drilling. This method uses a pneumatic drill that bores vertical holes 1 in (2.54 cm) apart and 20 ft (6.1 m) deep into the granite. The quarrymen then use 4 in (10.1 cm) long steel bits that have steel teeth to cut away at the core of the rock.

    Jet piercing is much faster than drilling, about seven times so. In this method, 16 ft (4.9 m) can be quarried in one hour. The process uses a rocket motor with a hollow steel shaft to expel a blend of pressurized hydrocarbon fuel and air in the form of a 2,800°F (1,537.8°C) flame. This flame is five times the speed of sound and cuts 4 in (10.2 cm) into the granite.

    The third way is the most efficient method, quieter, and produces almost no waste. Water jet piercing employs water pressure to cut the granite. There are two systems of water jet piercing, low pressure and high pressure. Both emit two streams of water, but the low pressure system streams are under 1,400-1,800 psi, and the high pressure streams are under 40,000 psi. The water from the jets is reused, and the method minimizes the mistakes and wasted material.

  2. The next step is to remove the block from the quarry bed. Workers take large pneumatic drills tipped with 1.5-1.88 in (3.81-4.78 cm) steel bits tipped with carbide and drill horizontally into the block of granite. They then place paper-wrapped blasting charges into the holes. Once the charges are set, the block makes a clean break from the rest of the rock.
  3. Granite blocks are usually about 3 ft (0.9 m) wide, 3 ft (0.9 m) high, and 10 ft (3 m) long, weighing about 20,250 lb (9,185 kg). Workers either loop a cable around the block or drill hooks into either end and attach the cable to the hooks. In both ways the cable is attached to a large derrick that lifts the granite block up and onto a flatbed truck that transports it to the headstone manufacturer. The quarries tend to be independently owned and sell the granite to manufacturers, but there are some larger companies that own quarries.
  4. After arriving at the manufacturing house, the granite slabs are unloaded onto a conveyor belt where they are cut into smaller slabs. The slabs are generally 6, 8, 10, or 12 in (15.2, 20.3, 25, and 30.4 cm, respectively) thick. This step is done with a rotary diamond saw. The saw is equipped with a 5 ft (1.5 m) or 11.6 ft (3.54 m) solid steel diamond blade. The blade usually has about 140-160 industrial diamond segments and has the ability to cut an average of 23-25 ft2 (2.1-2.3 m2) an hour.
  5. The cut slabs are passed under a varying number of rotating heads (usually eight to 13) with differing levels of grit arranged from the most abrasive to the least. The first few heads have a harsh diamond grit, the middle heads are for honing, and the last few heads are equipped with felt buffer pads. These pads have water and aluminum or tin oxide powder on them to polish the stone to a smooth, glossy finish.
  6. The polished slab is then moved along the conveyor belt to the hydraulic breaker. The breaker is equipped with carbide teeth that exert close to 5,000 psi of hydraulic pressure on the granite slab, making a vertical cut through the stone.
  7. The cut stone is then fashioned into the appropriate shape. This is either done by hand with a chisel and hammer, or more precisely with a multi-blade diamond saw. This machine can be set to hold up to 30 blades, but usually is only loaded with eight or nine. Equipped with nine blades, this multi-bladed diamond saw can cut 27 ft2 (2.5 m2) an hour.
  8. The surfaces of the stone are then polished again. In a highly automated process, 64 pieces can be polished at a time.
  9. The vertical edges are polished by an automated polishing machine, similar to the surface polisher. This machine chooses the harshest grit head and works it across the vertical edges of the stone. The machine then works its way through the other grits until the edges are smooth.
  10. The radial edges are ground and polished at the same time using two diamond grinding drums. One has a harsh grit diamond, and the second has a finer grit. The stone's radial edges are then polished.
  11. If intricate stone shapes are needed, the polished stone is moved to the diamond wire saw. The operator adjusts the saw and starts the process, which uses computer software to etch the shapes into the headstone. Any fine etching or detailing is finished by hand.
  12. The headstone is then ready for finishing. Rock Pitching entails chiseling the outer edges of the stone by hand, giving a more defined, personal shape.
  13. Now that the headstone is polished O and shaped, it is time for the engraving. Sandblasting is generally used. A liquid glue is applied to the headstone. A rubber stencil is applied over the glue and then covered with a carbon-backed layout of the design. The carbon transfers the design prepared by the draftsman, onto the rubber stencil. The worker then cuts out the letters and design features that are wanted on the stone, exposing them to the sandblasting. The sandblasting is either manually done or automated. Either method is done in an enclosed area due to the dangers of the process. The worker is entirely covered to be protected from the grains reflected off the stone. The course cutting abrasive is exerted at a force of 100 psi. Dust collectors collect and save the dust for reuse.
  14. The stone is then sprayed with high pressure steam to get rid of any leftover stencil or glue. It is again polished and closely inspected, then packaged in cellophane or heavy paper to protect the finish. The package is placed in crates and shipped to the customer or funeral director.

Quality Control

Quality control is strongly enforced throughout the manufacturing process. Each slab of rough granite is checked for color consistency. After each polishing step, the head stone is examined for flaws. At the first sign of a chip or scratch, the stone is taken off the line.

Byproducts/Waste

Depending on the cutting process used at the quarry, waste varies. Drilling is the least precise method of quarrying, thus producing the most waste. The water jet method produces the least amount of noise pollution and dust. It is also more fuel efficient than the other processes, and enables the water to be recycled. In sandblasting there is little waste also since the sand particles are collected and reused too. Any defective granite stones from the manufacture are generally sold off to other manufacturing companies or exported overseas. Other substandard stones are discarded.

The Future

There are many new techniques that use innovative software to etch designs on headstones. Laser etching is an upcoming development that allows pictures and more intricate designs to be put on the headstone using a laser beam. The heat from the laser pops the crystals on the surface of the granite, resulting in a elevated, light-colored etching.

The depletion of granite is not foreseeable in the near future. As quarries are mined, new resources develop. There are many regulations that limit the amount of granite that can be exported at a time. Alternative methods of the disposal of the dead are also factors that may limit the production of headstones. In 2015, cremation is expected to be the preferred method over burials in Canada.

Where to Learn More

Other

Cold Spring Granite Brochure. 17 October 2001. <http://www.coldspringgranite.com>.

Elberton Granite Association, Inc. Elberton Granite: The Quarrying and Manufacturing Process. 19 October 2001. <http://www.egaonline.com/index.htm>.

Monumnet Builders of North America. The Monument Industry Certification Manual. July 1993. <http://www.monumentbuilders.org>.

Rock of Ages Web Page. 17 October 2001. <http://www.rockofages.com>.

[Article by: Deirdre S. Blanchfield]


Architecture: headstone
Top
Home > Library > Home & Garden > Architecture and Construction

The principal stone in a foundation, as the cornerstone of a building or the keystone of an arch.

Wikipedia: Headstone
Top
Home > Library > Miscellaneous > Wikipedia
For other uses, see Headstone (disambiguation).
"Tombstone" redirects here. For other uses, see Tombstone (disambiguation).
Captain Andrew Drake (1684-1743) sandstone tombstone from the Stelton Baptist Church Cemetery in Edison, New Jersey

A headstone, tombstone, or gravestone is a marker, normally carved from stone, placed over or next to the site of a burial in a cemetery or elsewhere.

Contents

Use

Jarvis Andrew Lattin (1853-1941) granite tombstone from Powell Cemetery in Farmingdale, New York

The stele, as they are called in an archaeological context, is one of the oldest forms of funerary art. Originally, a tombstone was the stone lid of a stone coffin, or the coffin itself, and a gravestone was the stone slab that was laid over a grave. Now all three terms are also used for markers placed at the head of the grave. Originally graves in the 1700s also contained footstones to demarcate the foot end of the grave. Footstones were rarely carved with more than the deceased's initials and year of death, and many cemeteries and churchyards have removed them to make cutting the grass easier. Note however that in many UK cemeteries the principal, and indeed only, marker is placed at the foot of the grave.

Graves and any related memorials are a focus for mourning and remembrance. The names of relatives are often added to a gravestone over the years, so that one marker may chronicle the passing of an entire family spread over decades. Since gravestones and a plot in a cemetery or churchyard cost money, they are also a symbol of wealth or prominence in a community. Some gravestones were even commissioned and erected to their own memory by people who were still living, as a testament to their wealth and status. In a Christian context, the very wealthy often erected elaborate memorials within churches rather than having simply external gravestones.

Crematoria frequently offer similar alternatives for families who do not have a grave to mark, but who want a focus for their mourning and for remembrance. Carved or cast commemorative plaques inside the crematorium for example may serve this purpose.

Materials

A cemetery may follow national codes of practice or independently prescribe the size and use of certain materials, especially if in a conservation area. Some may limit the placing of a wooden memorial to six months after burial, after which a more permanent memorial should be placed. Others may require stones to be of a certain shape or position to facilitate grass-cutting by machines, or hand-held cutters. Headstones prepared from granite, marble and other kinds of stone are usually created, installed and repaired by monumental masons. Cemeteries require regular inspection and maintenance, as stones may settle, topple and, on rare occasions, fall and injure people [1]; or graves may simply become overgrown and their markers lost or vandalised.

Restoration is a specialised job for a monumental mason; even the removal of overgrowth needs care to avoid damaging the carving. For example, ivy should only be cut at the base roots and left to naturally die off, and never pulled off forcefully.

Granite tombstone of Josiah Leavitt (1679–1717), Hingham Center Cemetery, Hingham, Plymouth County, Massachusetts

Most types of building materials have been used at some time as markers. The more usual materials include:

Stone

  • Fieldstones. The earliest markers for graves were natural fieldstone, some unmarked and others decorated or incised using a metal awl. Typical motifs for the carving included a symbol and the deceased's name and age.
  • Granite. Granite is a hard stone and requires skill to carve by hand. Modern methods of carving include using computer-controlled rotary bits and sandblasting over a rubber stencil. Leaving the letters, numbers and emblems exposed on the stone, the blaster can create virtually any kind of artwork or epitaph.
  • Marble and limestone. Both limestone and marble take carving well. Marble is a recrystallised form of limestone. Both marble and limestone slowly dissolve when exposed to the mild acid in rainwater which can make inscriptions unreadable over time. Marble replaced sandstone as a popular material from the early 1800s.
  • Sandstone. Sandstone is durable yet soft enough to carve easily. Some sandstone markers are so well preserved that individual chisel marks can be discerned in the carving, while others have delaminated and crumbled into dust. Delamination occurs when moisture gets between the layers that make up the sandstone. As it freezes and expands the layers flake off. In the 1600s sandstone replaced fieldstones in Colonial America.
  • Slate. Slate can have a pleasing texture but is slightly porous and prone to delamination. It takes lettering well, often highlighted with white paint or gilding.
Sofi Hamid Cemetery in Azerbaijan

Metal, wood and plants

  • Iron. Iron grave markers and decorations were popular during the Victorian era in the United Kingdom and elsewhere, often being produced by specialist foundries or the local blacksmith. Cast iron headstones have lasted for generations while wrought ironwork often only survives in a rusted or eroded state.
  • White bronze. Actually sand cast zinc, but called white bronze for marketing purposes. Almost all, if not all, zinc grave markers were made by the Monumental Bronze Company of Bridgeport, CT, between 1874 and 1914. They are in cemeteries of the period all across the U. S. and Canada. They were sold as more durable than marble, about 1/3 less expensive and progressive.
  • Wood. This was a popular material during the Georgian and Victorian era, and almost certainly before, in Great Britain and elsewhere. Some could be very ornate, although few survive beyond 50-100 years due to natural decomposition.
  • Planting. Trees or shrubs, particularly roses, may be planted, especially to mark the location of ashes. This may be accompanied by a small inscribed metal or wooden marker.


Inscriptions

Gravestone showing death date of 1639, Wormshill.
HIS LAST MESSAGE: NO MORE WARS FOR ME - A headstone in the Jerusalem British World War I Cemetery on Mount Scopus

Markers usually bear inscriptions: epitaphs in praise of the deceased or quotations from religious texts, such as "requiescat in pace". In a few instances the inscription is in the form of a plea, admonishment, testament of faith, claim to fame or even a curse — William Shakespeare's inscription famously declares;

Good friend, for Jesus' sake forbear,
To dig the dust enclosèd here.
Blest be the man that spares these stones,
And cursed be he that moves my bones.

Or a warning about Mortality, such as this Persian poetry carved on an ancient tombstone in the Tajiki capital of Dushanbe.[2] [3]

I heard that mighty Jamshed the King
Carved on a stone near a spring of water these words:
"Many – like us – sat here by this spring
And left this life in the blink of an eye.
We captured the whole world through our courage and strength,
Yet could take nothing with us to our grave."

Or a simpler warning of inevitability of death:

Remember me as you pass by,
As you are now, so once was I,
As I am now, so you will be,
Prepare for death and follow me.


Hebrew inscriptions on gravestones in Prague.

The information on the headstone generally includes the name of the deceased and their date of birth and death. Such information can be useful to genealogists and local historians. Larger cemeteries may require a discrete reference code as well to help accurately fix the location for maintenance. The cemetery owner, church, or, as in the UK, national guidelines might encourage the use of 'tasteful' and accurate wording in inscriptions.

Headstone engravers faced their own "Year 2000 problem" when still-living people, as many as 500,000 in the United States alone, pre-purchased headstones with pre-carved death dates beginning 19–.[4]

Bas-relief carvings of a religious nature or of a profile of the deceased can be seen on headstones dating from before the 1800s. Since the invention of photography, a gravestone might include a framed photograph or cameo of the deceased; photographic images or artwork (showing the loved one, or some other image relevant to their life, interests or achievements) are sometimes now engraved onto smooth stone surfaces.

Some headstones use lettering made of white metal fixed into the stone, which is easy to read but can be damaged by ivy or frost. Deep carvings on a hard-wearing stone may weather many centuries exposed in graveyards and still remain legible. Those which are fixed on the inside of churches, on the walls or on the floor (frequently as near to the altar as possible) may last much longer: such memorials were often embellished with a monumental brass.

PETA’s grave marker protest

Marker inscriptions have also been used for political purposes, such as the grave marker installed in January 2008 at Cave Hill Cemetery in Louisville, Kentucky by Mathew Prescott, an employee of PETA. The grave marker is located near the grave of KFC founder Harland Sanders and bears the acrostic message “KFC tortures birds.” [5] The group placed its grave marker to promote its contention that KFC is cruel to chickens.

Form and decoration

Elaborately carved grave slab at Shebbear (Devon, England) showing a skull sprouting flowering shoots, as a symbol of resurrection
Marble headstone of a couple buried together in Singapore, showing an arched emblem, signifying the reunification with one's partner in heaven. Within the arch is a statue of Jesus Christ
Unconventional tombstone in the Cemetery Park of the "Freireligiöse Gemeinde" in Berlin, Prenzlauer Berg. Tree stump headstones in U.S. cemeteries are often associated with fraternal organization Woodmen of the World.

Gravestones may be simple upright slabs with semi-circular, rounded, gabled, pointed-arched, pedimental, square or other shaped tops. During the 18th century, they were often decorated with memento mori (symbolic reminders of death) such as skulls or winged skulls, winged cherub heads, heavenly crowns, urns or the picks and shovels of the grave digger. Somewhat unusual were more elaborate allegorical figures, such as Old Father Time, or emblems of trade or status, or even some event from the life of the deceased (particularly how they died). Later in the same century, large tomb chests or smaller coped chests were commonly used by the gentry as a means of commemorating a number of members of the same family. In the 19th century, headstone styles became very diverse, ranging from plain to highly decorated. They might be replaced by more elaborately carved markers, such as crosses or angels. Simple curb surrounds, sometimes filled with glass chippings, were popular during the mid-20th century.

Some form of simple decoration is once more popular. Special emblems on tombstones indicate several familiar themes in many faiths. Some examples are:

Greek letters might also be used:

  • αω (alpha and omega) - The beginning and the end
  • χρ (chi rho) - The first letters spelling the name of Christ
  • IHS - Stylised version of iota-eta-sigma, a Greek abbreviation of Jesus

Safety

An example of how old broken gravestones are reused, in this case as paving

Over time a headstone may settle or its fixings weaken. After several instances where unstable stones have fallen in dangerous circumstances, some burial authorities "topple test" headstones by firm pressure to check for stability. They may then tape them off or flatten them.

This procedure has proved controversial in the UK, where an authorities' duty of care to protect visitors is complicated because it often does not have any ownership rights over the dangerous marker. Authorities that have knocked over stones during testing or have unilaterally lifted and laid flat any potentially hazardous stones have been criticised, after grieving relatives have discovered that their relatives' marker has been moved.[6] Since 2007 Consistory Court and local authority guidance now restricts the force used in a topple test and requires an authority to consult relatives before moving a stone. In addition, before laying a stone flat, it must be recorded for posterity.[7][8]

Gallery

The grave of an infant at Horton, Northamptonshire, England

John Betjeman's grave in Cornwall with inscription on slate

Gravestone of John Jennings (died 1878) in Mabe churchyard

Ambroise-Dydime Lépine, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada

Cemetery, rural Spain

Typical late 20th century headstone, USA

Headstone, English cemetery

19th century marble headstone, Iowa, USA

18th century Biedermeier-Headstone, St. Marx cemetery, Vienna, Austria

German POW Camp Butler National Cemetery

Grave marker for Horatio Nelson Ball and father, Joseph Ball, Jr., Grandville Cemetery, MI, USA.

The grave of the Bristol slave known as Scipio Africanus has both head- and foot-stones. It has been restored to its original painted state

Headstone for a dog, Tatton Park, Cheshire, England.

A grave marker in Douglas County, Kansas, USA, resembling a millstone.

The Old Jewish Cemetery, Prague, Czech Republic.

Muslim Tatars of Nizhny Novgorod Oblast use peculiarly shaped wooden posts as grave markers

A 19th century gravestone, Boston, Massachusetts, USA, in memory of an Irishman born shortly before The Great Hunger

The 1777 gravestone of Col. John Hart, North Cemetery, Portsmouth, New Hampshire, USA.

Muslim gravestone, Thessaloniki, Greece.

Winged skull & winged soul effigies, Morristown, NJ

"Memento mori" inscribed at top of Abigail Goble Gravestone, 1742, Morristown, NJ

Weeping angel (the angel of grief) tombstone, Old Ship Burying Ground, Hingham, Massachusetts

Naturalistic rock tombstone, Old Ship Burying Ground, Hingham, Massachusetts

Author Laurie Lee's headstone in Slad, Gloucestershire

See also

Matthew Noble's gravestone, Brompton Cemetery, London

External links

Search Wikimedia Commons Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Headstone

References

  1. ^ Memorial safety
  2. ^ Information Clearinghouse
  3. ^ Robert Fisk: "An urge to smash history into tiny pieces" Information Clearing House The Independent, 08 September 2007
  4. ^ Grave Problem
  5. ^ PETA Takes Fight to Col. Sanders's Grave
  6. ^ National Federation of Cemetery Friends Safety in cemeteries guidance
  7. ^ Ecclesiastical Case Reports Re Keynsham Cemetery Gravestones
  8. ^ Advice and guidance from The Local Government Ombudsmen

This entry is from Wikipedia, the leading user-contributed encyclopedia. It may not have been reviewed by professional editors (see full disclaimer)

Translations: Headstone
Top
Home > Library > Literature & Language > Translations

Dansk (Danish)
n. - gravsten, hjørnesten

Nederlands (Dutch)
grafsteen, hoeksteen

Français (French)
n. - pierre tombale

Deutsch (German)
n. - Grabstein, Schlußstein

Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - ταφόπετρα

Italiano (Italian)
lapide

Português (Portuguese)
n. - lápide (f)

Русский (Russian)
краеугольный камень, надгробный камень

Español (Spanish)
n. - lápida mortuoria, piedra angular

Svenska (Swedish)
n. - gravsten, slutsten (byggn.)

中文（简体）(Chinese (Simplified))
墓石, 基石

中文（繁體）(Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 墓石, 基石

한국어 (Korean)
n. - 묘석, 초석

日本語 (Japanese)
n. - 墓石, かなめ石

العربيه (Arabic)
‏(الاسم) الشاهد شاهد الضريح أو القبر‏

עברית (Hebrew)
n. - ‮אבן היסוד, אבן ראשה, מצבה‬

If you are unable to view some languages clearly, click here.

To select your translation preferences click here.


 
 

 

Copyrights:

Dictionary. The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition Copyright © 2007, 2000 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Updated in 2009. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.  Read more
How Products are Made. How Products are Made. Copyright © 2002 by The Gale Group, Inc. All rights reserved.  Read more
Architecture. McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Architecture and Construction. Copyright © 2003 by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.  Read more
Wikipedia. This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Headstone".  Read more
Translations. Copyright © 2007, WizCom Technologies Ltd. All rights reserved.  Read more