- See also: Islam and clothing
"Higab" redirects here. For the municipal company of Gothenburg, Sweden, see
Higabgruppen.
Hijab or ħijāb (حجاب) is the Arabic term
for "cover" (noun), based on the root حجب meaning "to veil, to cover (verb), to screen, to shelter"
In some Arabic-speaking countries and Western countries, the word hijab primarily refers to women's head and body
covering, but in Islamic scholarship, hijab is given the wider meaning of modesty,
privacy, and morality.[1] The word used in the
Qur'an for a headscarf or veil is khimār (خمار).
Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World by Macmillan Reference states about hijab:[2]
The term hijab or veil is not used in the Qur'an to refer to an article of clothing for women or men, rather it refers to a
spatial curtain that divides or provides privacy. The Qur'an instructs the male believers (Muslims) to talk to wives of Muhammad
behind a hijab. This hijab was the responsibility of the men and not the wives of Muhammad. However, in later Muslim societies
this instruction specific to the wives of Muhammad was generalized, leading to the segregation of the Muslim men and women. The
modesty in Qur'an concerns both men's and women's gaze, gait, garments, and genitalia. The clothing for women involves khumūr
over the necklines and jilbab (cloaks) in public so that they may be identified and not harmed. Guidelines for covering of the
entire body except for the hands, the feet, and the face, are found in texts of fiqh and hadith that are developed later.
Despite the same Qur'anic obligations being issued for men and women, rules regarding dress developed so that men were to
cover from their navels to their knees, whereas a women were to cover all their bodies except what was essential, that is, the
hands and face.
Texts implicating the value and purpose to the use of hijab
Qur'an
The Qur'an instructs Muslims to dress in a "modest" fashion. The following verses are
generally interpreted as applying to all Muslim men and women.
Surah an-Nur ayah 31 states:
And say to the faithful women to lower their gazes, and to guard their private parts, and not to display their ornaments
except what is apparent of it, and to draw their scarves (khimars) over their bosoms (jaybs), and not to display their ornaments
except to their husbands, or their fathers, or their husband's fathers, or their sons, or their husband's sons, or their
brothers, or their brothers' sons, or their sisters' sons, or their womenfolk, or what their right hands rule, or the followers
from the men who do not feel sexual desire, or the small children to whom the nakedness of women is not apparent, and not to
strike their feet (on the ground) so as to make known what they hide of their ornaments. And turn in repentance to Allah
together, O you the faithful, in order that you are successful
In the following verse, Muslim women are asked to draw their jalābib (when they go
out), as a measure to distinguish themselves from others, so that they are not harassed.
Those who harass believing men and believing women unjustifiably shall bear the guilt of slander and a grievous sin. O
Prophet! Enjoin your wives, your daughters, and the wives of true believers to draw their cloaks over them [when they go out].
That is more proper, so that they may be distinguished and not be harassed. God is ever forgiving and merciful. If the hypocrites
and those who have the ailment [of jealousy] in their hearts and the scandal mongers of Madinah do not desist, We will rouse you
against them, and their days in that city will be numbered. Cursed be they; wherever found, they would be seized and put to
death.
Following verses give special directives to the wives of Muhammad though some
commentators believe that all women should imitate their example.
Wives of the Prophet, you are not like other women. So, if you fear God, do not be too complaisant in your speech, lest the
lecherous-hearted should lust after you. Talk with such people in plain and simple words. Abide still in your homes and do not
display your finery as women used to do in the days of ignorance. Attend to your prayers, give alms and obey God and His
Messenger. O woman of this house, the Almighty wants to cleanse you from the filth [these hypocrites want to besmear you with]
and to fully purify you. Communicate what is taught to you of the verses of God and the wisdom revealed by Him [to your
visitors]. The Almighty is very discerning and all-knowing.
Hadith
The hadith (Arabic plural ahādīth) are
traditions concerning the practices of the early Muslim community. They were transmitted orally for more than a century before
the first collections were written down. The hadith, accepted as canonical by Sunni
Muslims, took their final form some three centuries after Muhammad's death.
The Arabic word jilbab is translated as "cloak" in the following passage. Contemporary salafis insist that the jilbab worn today is the same garment mentioned in the Qur'an and the
hadith; other translators have chosen to use less specific terms:
- Aisha reported that Muhammad's wives went out at
nighttime to open fields in the outskirts of Medina to relieve themselves. Umar bin Khattab said 'Muhammad, ask your ladies to observe veil,'
- Narrated Anas ibn Malik: I know (about) the Hijab (the order of veiling of women)
more than anybody else. Ubay ibn Ka'b used to ask me about it. Allah's Apostle became the
bridegroom of Zaynab bint Jahsh whom he married at Medina. After the sun had risen
high in the sky, the Prophet invited the people to a meal. Allah's Apostle remained sitting and some people remained sitting with
him after the other guests had left. Then Allah's Apostle got up and went away, and I too, followed him till he reached the door
of 'Aisha's room. Then he thought that the people must have left the place by then, so he returned and I also returned with him.
Behold, the people were still sitting at their places. So he went back again for the second time, and I went along with him too.
When we reached the door of 'Aisha's room, he returned and I also returned with him to see that the people had left. Thereupon
the Prophet hung a curtain between me and him and the Verse regarding the order for (veiling of women) Hijab was revealed.
Sahih Bukhari 7:65:375, Sahih Muslim 8:3334
- Narrated Aisha, Ummul Mu'minin: The Prophet (peace be upon him) said: Allah does not accept the prayer of a woman who has
reached puberty unless she wears a veil.[3]
Sunnan Abu Dawud 2:641
- Narrated Aisha, Ummul Mu'minin: Asma bint Abu Bakr, entered upon the Apostle of
Allah (peace be upon him) wearing thin clothes. The Apostle of Allah turned his attention from her. He said: O Asma', when a
woman reaches the age of menstruation, it does not suit her that she displays her parts of body except this and this, and he
pointed to her face and hands.[4] Sunnan Abu Dawud 32:4092
- Narrated Umm Salama Hind bint Abi Umayya, Ummul Mu'minin: When the
verse "That they should cast their outer garments over their persons" was revealed, the women of Ansar came out as if they had
crows over their heads by wearing outer garments.[5]
Sunnan Abu Dawud 32:4090
- Narrated Safiya bint Shaiba: 'Aisha used to say: "When (the Verse):
"They should draw their veils over their necks and bosoms," was revealed, (the ladies) cut their waist sheets at the edges and
covered their faces with the cut pieces."[6]
Sahih Bukhari 6:60:282, Sunnan Abu Dawud 32:4091
http://askmuslims.com/women.html
Scholars' views on clothing that satisfies the demands of hijab
Traditionally, Muslims have recognized many different forms of clothing as satisfying the demands of hijab. Debate
focussed on how much of the male or female body should be covered. Different scholars adopted different interpretations of the
original texts. Sunnis recommend that women wear loose clothing that is not form fitting to the body either modest forms of
western clothing (long shirts and skirts), or the more traditional jilbab, a high-necked
loose robe that covers the arms and legs. A khumūr or shayla, a scarf or cowl that covers
all but the face is also worn in many different styles. Most salafi (sunni) scholars encourage covering the face. Many of them
say it is mandatory to cover the face. Other scholars oppose face covering, particularly in the west for personal safety where
the woman may be a victim of islamophobia. These garments are very different in cut than most of the traditional forms of
hijab, and they are worn worldwide by Muslimas.
Javed Ahmed Ghamidi, an Islamic scholar well-known
for historical contextualization of Muhammad's revelation[1](p.93), argues that Qur'an mentions khumūr only as a 7th
century Arabian dress, but there is no command to wear it in specific. In his
interpretation of verse [Qur'an 33:59], he argues that
"they may be known, and thus they will not be given trouble" and the context of the verse shows that the directive to wear
jalābib was for a specific situation. He also believes that the special restrictions for wives of
Muhammad are not applicable to all women at all times. He considers "head-covering" for women a cherished part of Muslim social
custom and tradition but not compulsory.[7][8]
Most other scholars, however, have provided evidence as to why the hijab is mandated. There have been very few Muslim scholars
who argued that covering the hair is not obligatory.
Some contemporary Muslims believe that the commandment to modesty must be interpreted with regard to the surrounding society.
What is considered modest, or daring, in one society may not be considered so in another. It is important, they say, for
believers to wear clothing that communicates modesty and reserve in the situations in which they find themselves.[9]
Women's dress
Detailed scholarly attention has been focused on prescribing female dress. Most scholars agree that the basic requirements are
that when in the presence of someone of the opposite sex (other than a close family member - see mahram), a woman should cover her body, and walk and dress in a way which does not draw sexual attention to
her. Some scholars go so far as to specify exactly which areas of the body must be covered. In some cases, this is everything
save the eyes but most require everything save the face and hands to be covered. In nearly all Muslim cultures, young girls are
not required to wear a hijab. There is not a single agreed age when a woman should begin wearing a hijab; however, in many
Muslim countries, puberty is the dividing line.
In private, and in the presence of mahrams, the rules on dress are relaxed. However in
the presence of husband, most scholars stress the importance of mutual freedom and pleasure of the husband and wife[10].
The burqa is the most observant example of this belief: not even a woman's eyes are
visible. Originating in what is now Pakistan, it is more commonly associated with Afghanistan. Typically, a burqa is composed of many yards of light material pleated around a cap that
fits over the top of the head. There is an embroidered openwork grille where the burqa passes over the eyes. This type of veil is
cultural as well as religious.
Traditionally Muslims, Salafis particularly and others generally, believe that the garments
known today as jilbab and khumūr are the very
garments demanded by the Qur'an. However, Qur'an translators and commentators translate the
Arabic into English words with a general meaning - such as veils, head-coverings and shawls.[11] While some scholars argue that verses [Qur'an 24:30] teach etiquette for male and female interactions, where khumūr is mentioned in reference to the
clothing of Arab women in the 7th century, but there is no command to actually wear them in any specific way. Hence they consider
head-covering a preferable practice but not a directive of the sharia (law).[12]
Men's dress
Although certain general standards are widely accepted, there has been little interest in narrowly prescribing what
constitutes modest dress for Muslim men. Most mainstream scholars say that men should cover themselves from the navel to the knees; a minority say that the hadith that are held to require
this are weak and possibly inauthentic. They argue that there are hadith indicating that the Islamic prophet Muħammad wore
loose clothing that uncovered his thigh when riding camels, and hold that if Muħammad believed that this was permissible, then it
is surely permissible for other Muslim males.[citation needed]
As a practical matter, however, the opinion that Muslim men must cover themselves between the navel and the knees is
predominant, and most Muslims believe that a man who fails to observe this requirement during salah must perform the prayer again, properly covered, in order for it to be valid. Three of the four
mathhabs, or schools of law, require that the knees be covered; the Maliki school
recommends but does not require knee covering.
A significant minority also consider that men should wear long sleeves in public, covering the arms up to the wrists. Such a
law was in place in Iran for some time after the 1979 revolution.
According to some hadith, Muslim men are asked not to wear gold jewellery or silk
clothing. Some scholars says that these prohibitions should be generalized to prohibit the lavish display of wealth on one's
person.[13]
Sartorial hijab as practiced
In more secular Muslim nations, such as Turkey, Iraq, and Egypt, many women are choosing to wear the Hijab, Burqa, Niqab, etc. as an act of defiance
against the secularization of society, but also because of the widespread growth of the Islamic revival in those areas[citation needed]. Similarly, increasing numbers of
men are abandoning the Western dress of jeans and t-shirts, that dominated places like Egypt 20 to 30 years ago, in favour of
more traditional Islamic clothing such as the Galabiyya.
In Iran many women, especially younger ones, have taken to wearing transparent Hijabs instead of Chadors to protest but keep
within the law of the state.
The colors of this clothing varies. It is mostly black, but in many African countries women wear cloths of many different
colours depending on their tribe, area, or family. In Bangladesh, Pakistan, and India, a lot of Muslim women wear bright orange and red
garments which look similar to the Hindu Sari.
In Turkey and Indonesia, the majority of women do not wear any kind of veil, except when they attend Friday Salat, while in many of the western Nations, where the majority of Muslims are from immigrant
backgrounds, the majority of women choose to wear the veil as a way of keeping in touch with their heritage.
Some Muslims have criticized strict dress codes that they believe go beyond the demands of hijab, using Qur'an 66:1 (which is usually
interpreted to apply to asceticism) to apply to dress codes as well; the verse suggests that
it is wrong to refrain from what is permitted by God.[citation needed]
Types of sartorial hijab
-
Law and custom by country
| Afghanistan |
|
Under the Taliban, the burqa was obligatory. Under the
current government, it is technically optional but in southern Afghanistan it is de facto obligatory. |
| India |
|
There are no laws enforcing ħijāb in India as it is a secular, Hindu-majority country, but in
some conservative, Muslim-majority areas, there is social pressure to cover. Many Indian Muslim women wear the burqa, although many others wear the dupatta or chunari. |
| Indonesia |
|
Headcovering is not obligatory under the law but some women choose to wear a headscarf referred to as a djilbab. In
some areas headcovering is mandatory under Islamic law. |
| Iran |
|
The current Iranian government requires women to wear loose-fitting coats or cloaks in public such as the chador, as well as a head scarf that covers the hair. |
| Malaysia |
|
The headscarf is known as a tudung. Muslim women may freely choose whether or not to wear the headscarf, except for
religious rites and ceremonies when the tudung must be worn. |
| Morocco |
|
The headscarf is not forbidden by law, but not encouraged by governmental institutions and generally frowned upon by urban
middle and higher classes. It is becoming gradually more frequent in the north, but as it is not traditional, to wear one is
considered rather a religious or political decision. In 2005, a schoolbook for basic religious education was heavily critized for
picturing girl children with headscarfs. |
| Pakistan |
|
While Pakistan has no laws enforcing ħijāb, there are many parts of the country where there
is strong social pressure for women to observe ħijāb, or purdah, which is a cultural
practice observed even by some Hindus, pardah is a Persian word. Many Pakistani women
who observe purdah wear a garment called the pak-chadar, a headscarf with attached veil. However, there are also many
Pakistani women who simply wear a dupatta or chunari to cover
their heads. These are long scarves, often made of a light material, that match the woman's garments. |
| Saudi Arabia |
|
The Saudi Arabian version of modest dress is composed of an abaya or loose robe, ħijāb or headcovering and niqāb or face veil. The Saudi niqāb usually leaves a long open slot
for the eyes; the slot is held together by a string or narrow strip of cloth. Abaya and ħijāb are required; the niqāb is required
for Muslim women but optional for other women. |
| Tunisia |
|
Tunisian authorities say they are encouraging women, instead, to "wear modest dress in line
with Tunisian traditions i.e. no headscarf.[14] |
| Turkey |
|
In Turkey wearing religious symbols, including headscarfs for women, is prohibited in public schools and state
buildings. |
|
Historical and cultural explanations
John Esposito, professor of Islamic Studies at Georgetown University, writes that the customs of veiling and seclusion of women in early Islam
were assimilated from the conquered Persian and Byzantine societies and then later on they were viewed as appropriate expressions of Quranic norms and
values. The Qur'an does not stipulate veiling or seclusion; on the contrary, it tends to emphasize the participation of religious
responsibility of both men and women in society.[15] He
claims that "in the midst of rapid social and economic change when traditional security and support systems are increasingly
eroded and replaced by the state, (...) hijab maintains that the state has failed to provide equal rights for men and women
because the debate has been conducted within the Islamic framework, which provides women with equivalent rather than equal rights
within the family."[16]
Bloom and Blair also write that the Qur'an doesn't require women to wear veils; rather, it was a social habit picked up with
the expansion of Islam. In fact, since it was impractical for working women to wear veils, "A veiled woman silently announced
that her husband was rich enough to keep her idle."[17]
Debate and controversy
The veil has become a subject of great controversy in non-Muslim countries with significant Muslim minorities, such as France
and Britain, where it has been seized upon as a symbol of oppression of Muslim women and the “backwardness” of Islam. Senior
British government minister Jack Straw was recently drawn into the debate after he suggested
that communication with some of the Muslim members of his constituency would be made significantly easier if they ceased covering
their faces.[18]
Such arguments highlight the much greater significance and symbolism the veil has assumed in recent times. It can no longer be
seen in purely religious terms, but is now an important aspect of a wider cultural debate that first emerged during colonial
times. Writers such as Leila Ahmed and Karen
Armstrong have highlighted how the veil became a symbol of resistance to colonialism,
particularly in Egypt in the latter part of the 19th Century, and again today in the post-colonial
period. In The Battle for God, Armstrong writes:
“The veiled woman has, over the years, become a symbol of Islamic self-assertion and a rejection of Western cultural
hegemony.” [19]
While in Women and Gender, Ahmed states:
“…it was the discourses of the West, and specifically the discourse of colonial domination, that in the first place determined
the meaning of the veil in geopolitical discourses and thereby set the terms for its emergence as a symbol of resistance.”
[20]
The issue of the veil has thus been “hijacked” to a degree by cultural essentialists on both sides of the divide. Arguments
against veiling have been co-opted, along with wider “feminist” discourse, to create a colonial “feminism” that uses questions of
Muslim women’s dress amongst others to justify “patriarchal colonialism in the service of particular political ends.”[21] Thus, efforts to improve the situation of women in Arab (and
other non-Western) societies are judged purely on what they wear. Meanwhile, for Islamists, rejection of “Western” modes of dress
is not enough: resistance and independence can only be demonstrated by the “wholesale affirmation of indigenous culture”[22] – a prime example being the wearing of the veil.
Critics
Critics of conservative interpretations of the hijab point out that while many claim wearing it does not necessarily signify
oppression, those for whom it does are not always free to state their true views on the matter.
Dress guidelines in
Banda Aceh (
Indonesia). The text at
the bottom reads:
Following the leading Islam principles according to article 13, paragraph 1, every Muslim has to wear
Islamic clothing. Whosoever does not follow these accepted Islamic customs will be punished with Tazir
crime.
In several countries, most notably Saudi Arabia and Iran[23] women must wear the national
version of Islamic dress or face punishment by religious police. While some women
wholeheartedly embrace the rules, others protest by observing the rules in slipshod or inconsistent fashion, or flouting them
whenever possible.
Some women have dared more pointed protest. As early as 1905, Bengali writer Rokeya Sakhawat Hussain criticised it in her utopian fantasy Sultana's Dream. Iranian-American novelist Azar Nafisi, author
of Reading Lolita in Tehran, Marjane
Satrapi, author of the graphic novel Persepolis, and Parvin Darabi who has authored Rage Against the Veil
are some of the famous opponents of compulsory veiling. In 2006 Jack Straw the former
UK Foreign Secretary caused controversy when he revealed that he had asked Muslim women
to uncover their faces at his constituency meetings.
Turkey and Tunisia are the only Muslim countries where the law prohibits the wearing of hijab in government buildings,
schools, and universities. See Ali Khan, Suppressive Rulings.
Supporters
The French law on secularity and
conspicuous religious symbols in schools (2004) and the banning of the niqab in the
Belgian city of Maaseik[24] (2006) are seen by some (mostly those who support
a conservative interpretation of female hijab) to be part of a general trend of Islamophobia in the Western world.
Tracing the Victorian law of coverture, Legal Scholar L. Ali Khan provides a critique of the British male elite that wishes to
impose its own "comfort views" to unveil Muslim women from Asia, Africa, and Middle East.[25]
Some women choose to wear styles that are more ostentatiously restrictive than local mores might require - perhaps as a sign
of Islamic enthusiasm and or piety.
In her discussion of findings from interviews of university-educated Moroccan Muslim women
who choose to wear the Hijab, Hessini argues that wearing the Hijab is used as a method of
separation of women from men when women work and therefore step into what is perceived to be the men’s public space, so in this
case, when women have the right and are able to work, a method has been found to maintain the traditional societal
arrangements.[26]
Elements of hijab besides clothing
Both genders are told to lower their gaze and not to stare at each other in public [citation needed].
See also
References
- ^ a b Esposito, John (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford
University Press. ISBN 0-19-512558-4. ,
p.112
- ^ Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World (2003), p.721, New
York : Macmillan Reference USA
- ^ Abū Dawud is considered the third most authentic collection (after
Sahih Bukhari and Sahih Muslim). However, not all
hadiths in Abu Dawud are authentic.
- ^ The collector, Abū Dawud, considered this hadith weak. Some later
scholars have disagreed with Abū Dawud
- ^ Abū Dawud classed this hadith as authentic
- ^ This translation may be problematic; it is unclear what Arabic words have
been translated as "veil", "apron", "face" and "bosom"
- ^ Ghamidi, Javed (2001). "Norms of Gender Interaction (The Social
Law of Islam)", Mizan. Dar ul-Ishraq. OCLC 52901690.
- ^ The Qur'anic Concept of Hijab, Renaissance, Al-Mawrid
Institute, Vol. 6, No. 11, November, 1996.[1]
- ^ Women in Islam: Hijab, Ibrahim B. Syed, 2001
- ^ Heba G. Kotb M.D., Sexuality in Islam, PhD
Thesis, Maimonides University, 2004
- ^ See collection of Qur'an translations, compared verse by verse
- ^ Javed Ahmed Ghamidi,
Mizan, Chapter: The Social Law of Islam, Al-Mawrid.
- ^ Shehzad Saleem. Wearing Silk, Renaissance-Monthly Islamic
Journal, 9(6), June, 1999
- ^ Tunisia attacked over headscarves 26 September
2006
- ^ John Esposito, Islam: The
Straight Path,, p.98, 3rd Edition. Oxford University Press, 2005.
- ^ Haddad/Esposito pg.xvii
- ^ Bloom, Jonathan; Blair,
Sheila (2002). Islam: A Thousand Years of Faith and Power. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-09422-1. ,
p.46-47
- ^ "Straw’s veil comments spark anger",
BBC News Online, 2006-10-05. Retrieved on 2007-04-18.
- ^ p.295, Armstrong, K, 2001, “The Battle for God: Fundamentalism in
Judaism, Christianity and Islam”, London, HarperCollinsRoutledge
- ^ p.235, Ahmed, L, 1992, “Women and Gender in Islam” Historical Roots of a
Modern Debate,” Yale University Press
- ^ ibid, p.244
- ^ ibid, p.244
- ^ Institute for Secularization of Islamic Society "Against Hijab" This article deals with
the compulsory aspect of hijab since the Islamic Revolution
- ^ [2]
- ^ http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=940025
- ^ Hessini, L., 1994, Wearing the Hijab in Contemporary Morocco: Choice and
Identity, in Göçek, F. M. & Balaghi, S., Reconstructing Gender in the Middle East: Tradition, Identity & Power,
New York, Columbia University Press
- El Guindi, Fadwa -- Veil: Modesty, Privacy, and Resistance, Berg, 1999.
See the website www.headscarf.net detailing the ethics of the hijab
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