Coats of arms of Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor from 1564 to 1576. The Emperors used the double-headed eagle as a symbol of their authority

The Holy Roman Empire in the 14th century. (The colours indicate the main dynasties competing for the crown.

The Holy Roman Emperor (German: Römischer Kaiser, Latin: Romanorum Imperator) was the elected monarch ruling over the Holy Roman Empire, a Central European state in existence during the Middle Ages and the Early Modern period. By convention the first Emperor was taken to be the Frankish king Charlemagne, crowned as Emperor of the West by Pope Leo III on 25 December 800, although the Empire itself (as well as the style Holy Roman Emperor) did not come into use until some time later. Holy Roman Emperors were crowned by the Popes up until the 16th century, and the last Emperor, Francis II, abdicated in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars that saw the Empire's final dissolution.

The Roman of the Emperor's title was a reflection of the translatio imperii (transfer of rule) principle that regarded the (Germanic) Holy Roman Emperors as the inheritors of the title of Emperor of the Western Roman Empire, a title left unclaimed in the West after the death of Julius Nepos in 480.

Establishment of the Holy Roman Empire

After Charlemagne's death in 814, his realm was eventually divided into three by his grandsons at the Treaty of Verdun of 843. The Western realm would later become France, the Middle realm Lotharingia or Lorraine, and the Eastern realm Germany. The title of Emperor was held by several Carolingian Frankish monarchs until the ascension of Otto I of the Eastern realm, in 962. From this time onward, Eastern Francia became the Holy Roman Empire, and its rulers, after being elected as King of Germany, would be crowned as emperor by the Pope. The last emperor to be crowned by the pope was Charles V; all emperors after him were technically emperors-elect, but were universally referred to as Emperor.

Conflict with the Papacy

The title of Emperor (Imperator) carried with it an important role as protector of the Catholic Church, and emperors were ordained as subdeacons of the Catholic Church (thus women were ineligible to be crowned). As the papacy's power grew during the Middle Ages, Popes and emperors came into conflict over church administration. The most well-known and bitter conflict was that known as the Investiture Controversy fought during the 11th century between Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII.

Succession

Successions to the kingship were controlled by a complicated mélange of factors. Elections meant the kingship of Germany was only partially hereditary, unlike the kingship of France, although sovereignty frequently remained in a dynasty until there were no more male successors. Some scholars suggest that the task of the elections was really to solve conflicts only when the dynastic rule was unclear, yet, the process meant that the prime candidate had to make concessions, by which the voters were kept on side, which were known as Wahlkapitulationen (election capitulations). The Electoral council was set at seven princes (three archbishops and four secular princes) by the Golden Bull of 1356. It remained so until 1648, when the settlement of the Thirty Years' War required the addition of a new elector to maintain the precarious balance between Protestant and Catholic factions in the Empire. Another elector was added in 1690, and the whole college was reshuffled in 1803, a mere three years before the dissolution of the Empire.

After 1438, the Kings remained in the house of Habsburg and Habsburg-Lorraine, with the brief exception of one Wittelsbach, Charles VII. In 1508, and permanently after 1556, the King no longer traveled to Rome for the crowning by the Pope.

List of Emperors

This list includes all emperors from Charlemagne, including Emperors-Elect. The numeration of Emperors follows that of the Kings of Germany; thus, there are some gaps in the tally. For example, Henry the Fowler was King of Germany but not Emperor; Emperor Henry II was numbered as his successor as German King. The Guideschi follow the numeration for the Duchy of Spoleto.

Carolingian Dynasty

• Charlemagne (Charles I the Great), 800–814
• Louis I the Pious, 814–840
• Lothair I, 843–855
• Louis II, 855–875
• Charles II the Bald, 875–877
• Charles III the Fat, 881–887

House of Guideschi

• Guy III of Spoleto, 891–894
• Lambert II of Spoleto, 894–898

Carolingian Dynasty

• Arnulf of Carinthia, 896–899
• Louis III the Blind, 901–905
• Berengar of Friuli, 915–924

Ottonian (Saxon) Dynasty

• Otto I the Great, 962–973
• Otto II, 973–983
• Otto III, 996–1002
• Henry II the Saint, 1014–1024 (enumerated as successor of Henry I who was German King 919–936 but not Emperor.)

Salian (Frankish) Dynasty

• Conrad II, 1027–1039 (enumerated as successor of Conrad I who was German King 911–918 but not Emperor)
• Henry III, 1046–1056
• Henry IV, 1084–1105
• Henry V, 1111–1125

Supplinburger dynasty

• Lothair III, 1133–1137 (enumerated as successor of Lothair II, who was King of Lotharingia 855–869 but not Emperor)

Staufen (or Hohenstaufen dynasty)

• Frederick I Barbarossa, 1155–1190
• Henry VI, 1191–1197

House of Welf

• Otto IV of Brunswick, 1209–1215 (d.1218)

Staufen (or Hohenstaufen dynasty)

• Frederick II, 1211–1250

House of Luxembourg

• Henry VII, 1312–1313

House of Wittelsbach

• Louis IV the Bavarian, 1328–1347

House of Luxembourg

• Charles IV, 1355–1378
• Sigismund, 1433–1437

House of Habsburg

• Frederick III, 1452–1493
• Maximilian I, 1508–1519 (emperor-elect)
• Charles V, 1530–1556 (did not formally abdicate until 1558) (emperor-elect 1519–1530)
• Ferdinand I, 1556-1564 (emperor-elect) (was not officially emperor-elect until 1558)
• Maximilian II, 1564–1576 (emperor-elect)
• Rudolf II, 1576–1612 (emperor-elect; enumerated as successor of Rudolf I who was German King 1273–1291 but not Emperor)
• Matthias, 1612–1619 (emperor-elect)
• Ferdinand II, 1619–1637 (emperor-elect)
• Ferdinand III, 1637–1657 (emperor-elect)
• Leopold I, 1658–1705 (emperor-elect)
• Joseph I, 1705–1711 (emperor-elect)
• Charles VI, 1711–1740 (emperor-elect)

House of Wittelsbach

• Charles VII Albert, 1742–1745 (emperor-elect)

House of Habsburg-Lorraine

• Francis I, 1745–1765 (emperor-elect)
• Joseph II, 1765–1790 (emperor-elect)
• Leopold II, 1790–1792 (emperor-elect)
• Francis II, 1792–1806 (emperor-elect)

Coronation

The Emperor was crowned in a special ceremony, traditionally, though not always, performed by the Pope in Rome, using the Imperial Regalia. Before 1508, a king, though elected and exercising all the powers of the Emperor, could not call himself by that title. In 1508, Pope Julius II conceded to Maximilian I the right to use the title of Emperor without coronation in Rome, though the title was qualified as Electus Romanorum Imperator, "Emperor of the Romans by election". Other than Charles V, all succeeding Emperors availed themselves of the right to use the title without going to Rome for coronation. Even before 1530, coronations were somewhat rare phenomena, and several were not performed by a generally recognized Pope at all.

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to:

Holy Roman Emperors

• King of the Romans
• List of German monarchs
• Holy Roman Empress
• Emperor for other uses of the title "Emperor" in western Europe.

References

Holy Roman Emperors

Carolingian Empire Charles I • Louis I • Lothair I • Louis II • Charles II • Charles III • Guy • Lambert • Arnulf • Louis III • Berengar Holy Roman Empire Otto I • Otto II • Otto III • Henry II • Conrad II • Henry III • Henry IV • Henry V • Lothair II • Frederick I • Henry VI • Otto IV • Frederick II • Henry VII • Louis IV • Charles IV • Sigismund • Frederick III • Maximilian I • Charles V • Ferdinand I • Maximilian II • Rudolph II • Matthias • Ferdinand II • Ferdinand III • Leopold I • Joseph I • Charles VI • Charles VII • Francis I • Joseph II • Leopold II • Francis II

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