homophobia

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Homophobia is a term for a range of negative attitudes and feelings towards homosexuality and people identified or perceived as being homosexual. Definitions^[1][2][3] of the term refer variably to antipathy, contempt, aversion, and (irrational) fear. Based on prejudice and similar to racism, xenophobia, anti-semitism, and sexism^[4], homophobia as motivation is observable in critical and hostile behavior such as discrimination^[1][2] and violence on the basis of a non-heterosexual orientation.

Among some more discussed forms of homophobia are institutionalized or state-sponsored homophobia^[5], lesbophobia - the intersection of homophobia and sexism directed towards lesbians, and internalized homophobia - a form of homophobia among people who experience same-sex attraction regardless of whether or not they identify as LGBT.

Two words originate from homophobia: homophobic (adj.) and homophobe (n.), the latter word being a label for a person who displays homophobia or is thought to do so.

Origins

Coinage

The present-day term homophobia denoting "a fear of homosexuals" was coined for technical usage in psychiatry sometime in the 1950s or 1960s. Evidence in English pronunciation points to its formation as being a blend made possible by the phonemic overlap between (1.) the word homosexual, itself a mix of neo-classical morphemes such as in television, and (2.) the -ophobia ending of words in which the suffix -phobia is preceded by the “o” of a prefix, such as in words like xenophobia.

Given this, an analysis of the word's orgins to the direct union of the Ancient Greek words ὁμός (homos) - "same" and φόβος (phobos) - "fear" is problematic. First, on a semantic basis, such a combination renders homophobia to mean a "fear of things that are the same"^[6]. Second, in terms of morphology, the two Ancient Greek words did not enter English as is: homos was clipped to form a prefix such as in the words homophone, homonym, and homogenous while phobos was clipped and then combined with -ia to form the suffix -phobia. Lastly, the formation of homophobia mimics the previously established pattern of forming technical terms by suffixation with -phobia.

It has been argued^[7] that since since the word homo is an anti-gay insult^[8], "a reasonable interpretation of homophobia is fear of ‘homos’, that is, homosexuals."^[6]

First documented uses

The word homophobia first appeared in print in an article written for the May 23, 1969, edition of the American tabloid Screw, in which the word was used to refer to heterosexual men's fear that others might think they are gay.^[6] In 1971, Kenneth Smith was the first person to use homophobia as a personality profile to describe the psychological aversion to homosexuality.^[9] The use was also adopted by Psychologist and gay activist George Weinberg in his 1972 book Society and the Healthy Homosexual,^[10] published one year before the American Psychiatric Association voted to remove homosexuality from its list of mental disorders.^[11][12] Weinberg's term became an important tool for gay and lesbian activists, advocates, and their allies.^[6] He describes the concept as a medical phobia:^[10]

[A] phobia about homosexuals….It was a fear of homosexuals which seemed to be associated with a fear of contagion, a fear of reducing the things one fought for — home and family. It was a religious fear and it had led to great brutality as fear always does.^[6]

While conceptualizing prejudice against people who are gay or lesbian as a social problem worthy of scholarly attention was not new, Weinberg is credited as the first person to give it a name.^[6] In 1982, homophobia was used for the first time in The New York Times to report that the General Synod of the Church of England voted to refuse to condemn homosexuality.^[13]

Criticism of meaning and purpose

Distinctions and proposed alternatives

Some researchers have proposed alternative words to describe prejudice and discrimination against LGBT people.

Homoerotophobia, being a possible precursor term to homophobia, was coined by Wainwright Churchill and documented in Homosexual Behavior Among Males in 1967.

The specious etymology of homophobia citing the union of homos and phobos is the basis for LGBT historian Boswell's criticism of the term and for his suggestion of the alternative homosexophobia.^[14]

Homonegativity is based on the term homonegativism used by Hudson and Ricketts in a 1980 paper; they coined the term for their research in order to avoid homophobia, which they regarded as being unscientific in its presumption of motivation.^[15]

Other terms, such as heterosexism, have been proposed as alternatives that are more morphologically parallel, and which do not have the association with phobia. Heterosexism refers to the presumption that all people are heterosexual and/or to the privileging of heterosexuality over homosexuality. Gregory M. Herek, a researcher at the University of California, Davis, compared several related terms: homophobia, heterosexism, and sexual prejudice. In preferring the third term, he noted that homophobia was "probably more widely used and more often criticized", and observed that "Its critics note that homophobia implicitly suggests that antigay attitudes are best understood as an irrational fear and that they represent a form of individual psychopathology rather than a socially reinforced prejudice." He preferred sexual prejudice as being descriptive and free of presumptions about motivations, and lacking in value judgments as to the irrationality or immorality of those so labeled.^[16][17]

Opposition

Use of homophobia, homophobic, and homophobe has been criticized as pejorative against those with differing value positions. This opposition to the use of homophobia is based on a strict and literal interpretation of the term to mean "an irrational fear".

In 1993, behavioral scientists William O'Donohue and Christine Caselles concluded that the usage of the term "as it is usually used, makes an illegitimately pejorative evaluation of certain open and debatable value positions, much like the former disease construct of homosexuality" itself, arguing that the term may be used as an ad hominem argument against those who advocate values or positions of which the speaker does not approve. The social construct of masculinity is not defined by attraction to females alone but also by negative attraction to males. The implication of a fear of something unmasculine, given the term's scientific etymology, may be used illegitimately to imply that anyone with a different opinion is unmasculine.^[18] A group of psychologists from the University of Arkansas conducted research that showed that participants responses were not fear-based but reflected a disapproval of homosexuality that was due to other factors, such as disgust.^[19] The National Association for Research & Therapy of Homosexuality, an organization affiliated with the ex-gay movement, describes the term homophobia as being "often used inaccurately to describe any person who objects to homosexual behavior on either moral, psychological or medical grounds." They claim that, "Technically, however, the terms actually denotes a person who has a phobia — or irrational fear — of homosexuality. Principled disagreement, therefore, cannot be labeled 'homophobia.'"^[20]

Classification

A Volkswagen Beetle ("Bug") owner in response to fag graffiti spray-painted on her car christened it "The Fagbug" and embarked on a trans-American road trip to raise awareness of homophobia and LGBT rights.[21][22]

Homophobia manifests in different forms, and a number of different types have been postulated, among which are internalized homophobia, social homophobia, emotional homophobia, rationalized homophobia, and others.^[23] There were also ideas to classify homophobia, racism, and sexism as an intolerant personality disorder.^[24]

Homophobia is not mentioned directly in any diseases classifications (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders and International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems). For some, homophobia is a non-clinical term.^[25]

David Hall contrasts homophobia with heterosexism, which he describes as a belief that heterosexuality is better than homosexuality, and deserving of distinct rights and privileges: "A phobia is an irrational fear. When you have a phobia, you either flee what you fear or attack and attempt to destroy what you fear", and cites Matthew Shepard and Lawrence King as victims of this. He explains that also, "people who are fired from their jobs for being lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender are victims of homophobia." ^[26]

Internalized homophobia

Internalized homophobia (or egodystonic homophobia) refers to negative feeling towards oneself because of homosexuality.^[27][28] This term has been criticized because holding negative attitudes does not necessarily involve a phobia, and the term "internalized stigma" is sometimes used instead.^[27] It causes severe discomfort with or disapproval of one's own sexual orientation. Internalized homophobia is thus a form of cognitive dissonance; the individual cannot reconcile the conflicting conscious or unconscious sexual desires with values and tenets gained from society, religion or upbringing.^{[citation needed]}

Such a situation may cause extreme repression of homosexual desires.^[29] In other cases, a conscious internal struggle may occur for some time, often pitting deeply held religious or social beliefs against strong sexual and emotional desires. This discordance often causes clinical depression, and the unusually high suicide rate among gay teenagers (up to 30 percent of non-heterosexual youth attempt suicide) has been attributed to this phenomenon.^[30] Psychotherapy, such as gay affirmative psychotherapy, and participation in a sexual-minority affirming group can help resolve the internal conflict between a religious and a sexual identity.^[27]

The label of internalized homophobia is sometimes applied to conscious or unconscious behaviors which an observer feels the need to promote or conform to the expectations of heteronormativity or heterosexism. This can include extreme repression and denial coupled with forced outward displays of heteronormative behavior for the purpose of appearing or attempting to feel "normal" or "accepted". This might also include less overt behavior like making assumptions about the gender of a person's romantic partner, or about gender roles. Some also apply this label to LGBT persons who support "compromise" policies, such as those that find civil unions an acceptable alternative to same-sex marriage. Whether this is a tactical judgement call or the result of some kind of internal prejudice (whether in a cause-and-effect fashion, or definitionally) is a matter of some debate.^{[citation needed]}

Some argue that some or most people who are homophobic have repressed their own homosexuality, but this argument is somewhat controversial. In 1996, a controlled study of 64 heterosexual men (half claimed to be homophobic by experience and self-reported orientation) at the University of Georgia found that men who were found to be homophobic (as measured by the Index of Homophobia)^[31] were considerably more likely to experience more erectile responses when exposed to homoerotic images than non-homophobic men.^[29]

Social homophobia

Westboro Baptist Church member Ben Phelps, grandson of Fred Phelps

The word can be used to describe the fear of a heterosexual that they will be approached romantically by someone of the same sex. It also can describe the apparently fear-based reactions of recoiling from unintentional close contact with another male or of being in close proximity to other males in certain situations such as while in the restroom. These are typically fear-based reactions, but the fear is usually that of the social stigma of being labelled homosexual.

The fear of being identified as gay can be considered as a form of social homophobia. Theorists including Calvin Thomas and Judith Butler have suggested that homophobia can be rooted in an individual's fear of being identified as gay.^{[citation needed]} Homophobia in men is correlated with insecurity about masculinity.^[32][33]

They have argued that a person who expresses homophobic thoughts and feelings does so not only to communicate their beliefs about the class of gay people, but also to distance themselves from this class and its social status. Thus, by distancing themselves from gay people, they are reaffirming their role as a heterosexual in a heteronormative culture, thereby attempting to prevent themselves from being labeled and treated as a gay person. This interpretation alludes to the idea that a person may posit violent opposition to "the Other" as a means of establishing their own identity as part of the majority and thus gaining social validation. This concept is also recurrent in interpretations of racism and xenophobia.^{[citation needed]}

Nancy J. Chodorow states that homophobia can be viewed as a method of protection of male masculinity.^[34]

Various psychoanalytic theories explain homophobia as a threat to an individual's own same-sex impulses, whether those impulses are imminent or merely hypothetical. This threat causes repression, denial or reaction formation.^[35]

Political ideology

Joseph Stalin introduced Article 121, which remained in place until 1993.

The Soviet Union under Vladimir Lenin decriminalized homosexuality in 1922, long before many other European countries. The Russian Communist Party effectively legalized no-fault divorce, abortion and homosexuality, when they abolished all the old Tsarist laws and the initial Soviet criminal code kept these liberal sexual policies in place.^[36] However, some left-wing figures have considered homosexuality a "bourgeois disease", a right-wing movement or a "Western disease".^[37] Lenin's emancipation was reversed a decade later by Joseph Stalin and homosexuality remained illegal under Article 121 until the Yeltsin era.

In China homosexual behavior was outlawed in 1740. When Mao came to power, the government thought of homosexuality as "social disgrace or a form of mental illness", and "[d]uring the cultural revolution (1966 - 76), people who were homosexual faced their worst period of persecution in Chinese history." Despite there being no law in the communist People's Republic against homosexuality, "police regularly rounded up gays and lesbians." Other laws were used to prosecute homosexual people and they were "charged with hooliganism or disturbing public order."^[38]

The Communist regime in Cuba persecuted homosexual people throughout the 1960s and 1970s, but has taken a more tolerant position in recent years.^[39]

The North Korean government condemns Western gay culture as a vice caused by the decadence of capitalist society, and denounces it as promoting consumerism, classism, and promiscuity.^[40] In North Korea, "violating the rules of collective socialist life" can be punished with up to two years' imprisonment.^[41] However, according to the North Korean government, "As a country that has embraced science and rationalism, the DPRK recognizes that many individuals are born with homosexuality as a genetic trait and treats them with due respect. Homosexuals in the DPRK have never been subject to repression, as in many capitalist regimes around the world."

Robert Mugabe, the leader of Zimbabwe, has waged a violent campaign against people who are homosexual, arguing that before colonisation, Zimbabweans did not engage in homosexual acts.^[42] His first major public condemnation of homosexuality was in August 1995, during the Zimbabwe International Book Fair.^[43] He told an audience: "If you see people parading themselves as lesbians and gays, arrest them and hand them over to the police!"^[44] In September 1995, Zimbabwe's parliament introduced legislation banning homosexual acts.^[43] In 1997, a court found Canaan Banana, Mugabe's predecessor and the first President of Zimbabwe, guilty of 11 counts of sodomy and indecent assault.^[45][46]

Precursor to a climate of prejudice

Sexist beliefs

This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (June 2008)

Some gender theorists interpret the fact that male-to-male relationships often incite a stronger reaction in homophobic people than female-to-female (lesbian) as meaning that people who are homophobic feel more threatened by the perceived subversion of the male-superior gender paradigm. According to such theorists as D.A. Miller, male heterosexuality is defined not only by the desire for women but also (and more importantly) by the denial of desire for men. Therefore, expressions of homophobia serve as a means of accenting their male nature by distancing themselves from the threatening concept of their own potential femininity, and consequently belittling gay men, as not being real males. According to this theory, the reason male homosexuality is treated worse compared to female homosexuality is sexist in its underlying belief that men are superior to women and therefore for a man to "replace" a woman during intercourse with another man necessarily degrades his own masculine status.

Miller's view implies that only the receptive or submissive role in a homosexual act is regarded as emasculating, as is the case in many cultures. His specific claim that male heterosexuality does not require a "desire for women" seems to preclude the possibility of asexuality or bisexuality. It is not made clear why heterosexual men would "need" to fear gay people in order to affirm maleness – unless they perceived that their sexuality was already threatened by another factor.

Other theories of the difference in homophobic reactions to male-male rather than female-female homosexual relationships simply have to do with a common sexual desire. A heterosexual man desires women. For a woman to desire women is thus more understandable than for a man to desire men, as a heterosexual man and homosexual woman share the same desire for women, but a heterosexual man cannot understand or identify with the attraction of one man to another man. Similarly, homosexual men desire men, and thus for a man to desire men is understandable to a woman who has the same desires.

Distribution of attitudes in the UK and US

This section requires expansion.

The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk page. (October 2009)

Disapproval of homosexuality and of gay people is not evenly distributed throughout society, but is more or less pronounced according to age, ethnicity, geographic location, race, sex, social class, education, partisan identification and religious status. According to UK HIV/AIDS charity AVERT, lack of homosexual feelings or experiences, religious views, and lack of interaction with gay people are strongly associated with such views.^[47]

The anxiety of heterosexual individuals (particularly adolescents whose construction of heterosexual masculinity is based in part on not being seen as gay) that others may identify them as gay^[48][49] has also been identified by Michael Kimmel as an example of homophobia.^[50] The taunting of boys seen as eccentric (and who are not usually gay) is claimed to be endemic in rural and suburban American schools, and has been associated with risk-taking behavior and outbursts of violence (such as a spate of school shootings) by boys seeking revenge or trying to assert their masculinity.^[51]

In the United States, attitudes about people who are homosexual may vary on the basis of partisan identification. Republicans are far more likely than Democrats to have negative attitudes about people who are gay and lesbian, according to surveys conducted by the National Election Studies in 2000 through 2004.

Homophobia also varies by region, statistics show that the Southern United States has more reports of anti-gay prejudice than any other region in the US.^[52]

The disparity is shown in the graph on the right, which is from a book published in 2008 by Joseph Fried. It should be noted that the tendency of Republicans to view gay and lesbian people negatively could be based on homophobia, religious beliefs, or conservatism with respect to the traditional family.^[53]

One study of white adolescent males conducted at the University of Cincinnati by Janet Baker has been used to argue that negative feelings towards gay people are also associated with other discriminatory behaviors. The study claims to have found that hatred of gay people, anti-Semitism and racism are "likely companions",^[54] suggesting it is an abuse of power. A study performed in 2007 in the UK for the charity Stonewall reports that 90 percent of the population support anti-discrimination laws protecting gay and lesbian people.^[55]

Social institutions can perpetuate homophobic attitudes. Such institutional sources in the black community include:

• Music and music videos^[56][57][58]
• Churches^[59][60][61]

Sources of homophobia in the white community include:

• Churches

Pastor John Hagee said in 2006, "I believe that New Orleans had a level of sin that was offensive to God, and they were recipients of the judgment of God for that. The newspaper carried the story in our local area, that was not carried nationally, that there was to be a homosexual parade there on the Monday that the Katrina came."^[62][63] This view was echoed by Fred Phelps and the Westboro Baptist Church, who promote the view that virtually all wars and natural disasters affecting America are God's punishment for tolerating homosexuality. The parade mentioned above was due to take place in the French Quarter of New Orleans, an area which escaped the terrible effects of Hurricane Katrina.^{[citation needed]}

Professional sports in many countries involves homophobic expressions by star athletes and by fans. Examples in the United States include:

• Hockey fans

The homophobic chants and attitudes of certain fans, for example the labelling of one fan who frequently dances at games as "Homo Larry", have been protested by attendees of New York Rangers games and by New York City Council Speaker Christine Quinn.^[64]

• Basketball players

All-Star National Basketball Association player Tim Hardaway drew criticism after he said on the "790 the Ticket" radio show, "Well, you know, I hate gay people. I let it be known I don’t like gay people. I don’t like to be around gay people. I’m homophobic. I don’t like it, it shouldn’t be in the world, in the United States, I don’t like it.”^[65]

However, the major professional sports leagues do not advocate homophobia, and regard the LGBT community a very important marketing base.^[66][67][68]

Combating homophobia

An anti-homophobia protester at a demonstration in Paris, in 2005

To combat homophobia, the LGBT community uses events such as gay pride parades and political activism (See gay pride). This is criticized by some^[who?] as counter-productive though, as gay pride parades showcase what could be seen as more "extreme" sexuality: fetish-based and gender-variant aspects of LGBT culture. One form of organized resistance to homophobia is the International Day Against Homophobia (or IDAHO),^[69] first celebrated May 17, 2005 in related activities in more than 40 countries.^[70] The four largest countries of Latin America (Argentina, Brazil, Mexico and Colombia) developed mass media campaigns against homophobia since 2002.^[71]

In addition to public expression, legislation has been designed, controversially, to oppose homophobia, as in hate speech, hate crime, and laws against discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation.

Some argue that anti-LGBT prejudice is immoral and goes above and beyond the effects on that class of people. Warren J. Blumenfeld argues that this emotion gains a dimension beyond itself, as a tool for extreme right-wing conservatives and fundamentalist religious groups and as a restricting factor on gender-relations as to the weight associated with performing each role accordingly.^[72] Furthermore, Blumenfeld in particular claimed:

Anti-gay bias causes young people to engage in sexual behavior earlier in order to prove that they are straight. Anti-gay bias contributed significantly to the spread of the AIDS epidemic. Anti-gay bias prevents the ability of schools to create effective honest sexual education programs that would save children's lives and prevent STDs.

Contemporary death penalty

In 2009, ILGA published a report based on research carried out by Daniel Ottosson at Södertörn University College, Stockholm, Sweden. This research found that of the 80 countries around the world that continue to consider homosexuality illegal, five carry the death penalty for homosexual activity, and two do in some regions of the country. In the report, this is described as "State sponsored homophobia"^[73] This happens in Islamic states, or in two cases regions under Islamic authority.^[74][75]

• Countries that carry the death penalty:^[76]
  • Iran
  • Mauritania
  • Saudi Arabia
  • Sudan
  • Yemen

• Countries where death penalty applies in some areas:^[76]
  • Nigeria
  • Somalia

In countries where homosexual activity carries the death penalty, it is enacted under Sharia Law; under which Islam forbids homosexuality, and it is treated as a crime in most Islamic countries. All major Islamic sects disapprove of homosexuality. Homosexuality carried the death penalty in Afghanistan under the Taliban. The legal situation in the United Arab Emirates is unclear. In Saudi Arabia, the maximum punishment for homosexuality is public execution, but the government will use other punishments - e.g., fines, jail time, and whipping - as alternatives, unless it feels that people engaging in homosexual activity are challenging state authority by engaging in LGBT social movements.^[77] Since the 1979 Islamic revolution in Iran, the Iranian government has executed more than 4,000 people charged with homosexual acts.^[78] In Afghanistan after the fall of the Taliban, homosexuality went from a capital crime to one that it punished with fines and prison sentence.

Most international human rights organizations, such as Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International, condemn laws that make homosexual relations between consenting adults a crime. Since 1994, the United Nations Human Rights Committee has also ruled that such laws violated the right to privacy guaranteed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. In 2008, the Roman Catholic Church issued a statement which "urges States to do away with criminal penalties against [homosexual persons]."^[79]

In 2001, Al-Muhajiroun, an international organization seeking the establishment of a global Islamic caliphate, issued a fatwa declaring that all members of The Al-Fatiha Foundation (which advances the cause of gay, lesbian, and transgender Muslims) were murtadd, or apostates, and condemning them to death. Because of the threat and coming from conservative societies, many members of the foundation's site still prefer to be anonymous so as to protect their identity while continuing a tradition of secrecy.^[80]

See also: Mahmoud Asgari and Ayaz Marhoni, Arsham Parsi, Irshad Manji

See also

Allophilia Bernardino of Siena#Attacks on sodomy Biphobia Civil Rights Movement Corrective rape Faggot (slang) Hate crimes Heterophobia Heterosexism Homosexual panic Homosexuality and Citizenship in Florida (pamphlet)

LGBT portal Iris Robinson Lesbophobia LGBT rights opposition Fred Phelps Michael Savage Matthew Shepard Sissyphobia: Gay Men and Effeminate Behavior Transphobia Violence against LGBT people Lavender baiting

References

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Homophobia

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Homophobia

Look up Homophobia in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

• Homophobia at the Open Directory Project
• Sexual Prejudice: Understanding Homophobia and Heterosexism
• The Homophobic Imagination - an essay by Rictor Norton and Louie Crew
• The Rockway Institute for LGBT research in the public interest at Alliant International University
• PBS - "Frontline's" homophobia quiz
• European Parliament - resolution on homophobia in Europe
• An analysis of Campaigns against Homophobia in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, and Mexico
• Homophobia Is the Problem, Not Gays-- photos from anti-homophobia event By Irina Echarry, Havana Times May 19, 2009
• Light a Pixel for the victims of the Tel Aviv Gay Center attack (2009)

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